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Campbell Biology in Focus Nervous and Sensory Systems
1.
CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN
FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 38 Nervous and Sensory Systems
2.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Overview: Sense and Sensibility Gathering, processing, and organizing information are essential functions of all nervous systems
3.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.1
4.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The ability to sense and react originated billions of years ago in prokaryotes Hydras, jellies, and cnidarians are the simplest animals with nervous systems In most cnidarians, interconnected nerve cells form a nerve net, which controls contraction and expansion of the gastrovascular cavity Concept 38.1: Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
5.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.2 (a) Hydra (cnidarian) Spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord) Brain (b) Planarian (flatworm) (c) Insect (arthropod) (d) Salamander (vertebrate) Sensory ganglia Brain Nerve cords Eyespot Transverse nerve Segmental ganglia Brain Nerve net Ventral nerve cord
6.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. In more complex animals, the axons of multiple nerve cells are often bundled together to form nerves These fibrous structures channel and organize information flow through the nervous system Animals with elongated, bilaterally symmetrical bodies have even more specialized systems
7.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Cephalization is an evolutionary trend toward a clustering of sensory neurons and interneurons at the anterior Nonsegmented worms have the simplest clearly defined central nervous system (CNS), consisting of a small brain and longitudinal nerve cords
8.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Annelids and arthropods have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia In vertebrates The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of nerves and ganglia
9.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Glia Glia have numerous functions to nourish, support, and regulate neurons Embryonic radial glia form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate Astrocytes (star-shaped glial cells) induce cells lining capillaries in the CNS to form tight junctions, resulting in a blood-brain barrier
10.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.3 Ependymal cell Neuron CNS PNS Oligodendrocyte Schwann cell Microglial cell VENTRICLE Cilia Capillary Astrocytes Intermingling of astrocytes with neurons (blue) LM 50µm
11.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.3a Astrocytes Intermingling of astrocytes with neurons (blue) LM 50µm
12.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System The spinal cord runs lengthwise inside the vertebral column (the spine) The spinal cord conveys information to and from the brain It can also act independently of the brain as part of simple nerve circuits that produce reflexes, the body’s automatic responses to certain stimuli
13.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.4 Spinal cord Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves Spinal nerves Ganglia outside CNS Brain
14.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The brain and spinal cord contain Gray matter, which consists mainly of neuron cell bodies and glia White matter, which consists of bundles of myelinated axons
15.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The CNS contains fluid-filled spaces called ventricles in the brain and the central canal in the spinal cord Cerebrospinal fluid is formed in the brain and circulates through the ventricles and central canal and drains into the veins It supplies the CNS with nutrients and hormones and carries away wastes
16.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Peripheral Nervous System The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS and regulates movement and the internal environment In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information to the CNS and efferent neurons transmit information away from the CNS
17.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.5 Afferent neurons Sensory receptors Internal and external stimuli Autonomic nervous system Motor system Control of skeletal muscle Sympathetic division Enteric division Control of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands Parasympathetic division Efferent neurons Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System (information processing)
18.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The PNS has two efferent components: the motor system and the autonomic nervous system The motor system carries signals to skeletal muscles and can be voluntary or involuntary The autonomic nervous system regulates smooth and cardiac muscles and is generally involuntary
19.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions The enteric division controls activity of the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
20.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The sympathetic division regulates the “fight-or- flight” response The parasympathetic division generates opposite responses in target organs and promotes calming and a return to “rest and digest” functions
21.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 38.2: The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized The human brain contains 100 billion neurons These cells are organized into circuits that can perform highly sophisticated information processing, storage, and retrieval
22.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6a
23.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6b Medulla oblongata Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Diencephalon Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum Midbrain (part of brainstem) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Embryo at 1 month Embryo at 5 weeks Spinal cord Child Diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Spinal cord Pons Cerebrum
24.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6ba Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Diencephalon Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum Midbrain (part of brainstem) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Mesencephalon
25.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6bb Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Embryo at 1 month Embryo at 5 weeks Spinal cord
26.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6bc Medulla oblongata Child Diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Spinal cord Pons Cerebrum
27.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6c Basal nuclei Cerebellum Cerebrum Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex Left cerebral hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere Adult brain viewed from the rear
28.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.6d Diencephalon Thalamus Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Spinal cord Brainstem Midbrain Medulla oblongata Pons
29.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Arousal and Sleep Arousal is a state of awareness of the external world Sleep is a state in which external stimuli are received but not consciously perceived Arousal and sleep are controlled in part by clusters of neurons in the midbrain and pons
30.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sleep is an active state for the brain and is regulated by the biological clock and regions of the forebrain, which regulate the intensity and duration of sleep Some animals have evolutionary adaptations that allow for substantial activity during sleep For example, in dolphins, only one side of the brain is asleep at a time
31.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.7 Location Left hemisphere Right hemisphere Time: 1 hour Key Time: 0 hours Low-frequency waves characteristic of sleep High-frequency waves characteristic of wakefulness
32.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Biological Clock Regulation Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples of circadian rhythms, daily cycles of biological activity Mammalian circadian rhythms rely on a biological clock, a molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene expression Biological clocks are typically synchronized to light and dark cycles and maintain a roughly 24-hour cycle
33.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the biological clock
34.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Emotions Generation and experience of emotions involve many brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus These structures are grouped as the limbic system
35.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Generation and experience of emotion also require interaction between the limbic system and sensory areas of the cerebrum The brain structure that is most important for emotional memory is the amygdala
36.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.8 Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Olfactory bulb Hippocampus
37.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction The brain’s reward system provides motivation for activities that enhance survival and reproduction The brain’s reward system is dramatically affected by drug addiction Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive consumption and an inability to control intake
38.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, alcohol, and tobacco enhance the activity of the dopamine pathway Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in the reward circuitry that cause craving for the drug
39.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.9 Inhibitory neuronNicotine stimulates dopamine- releasing VTA neuron. Cerebral neuron of reward pathway Dopamine- releasing VTA neuron Opium and heroin decrease activity of inhibitory neuron. Cocaine and amphetamines block removal of dopamine from synaptic cleft. Reward system response
40.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Functional Imaging of the Brain Functional imaging methods are transforming our understanding of normal and diseased brains In positron-emission tomography (PET) an injection of radioactive glucose enables a display of metabolic activity
41.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. In functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI, the subject lies with his or her head in the center of a large, doughnut-shaped magnet Brain activity is detected by changes in local oxygen concentration Applications of fMRI include monitoring recovery from stroke, mapping abnormalities in migraine headaches, and increasing the effectiveness of brain surgery
42.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.10 Nucleus accumbens Amygdala Happy music Sad music
43.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.10a Nucleus accumbens Happy music
44.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.10b Amygdala Sad music
45.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 38.3: The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions The cerebrum is essential for language, cognition, memory, consciousness, and awareness of our surroundings The cognitive functions reside mainly in the cortex, the outer layer Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal), are landmarks for particular functions
46.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.11 Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe Parietal lobe Cerebellum Motor cortex (control of skeletal muscles) Somatosensory cortex (sense of touch) Wernicke’s area (comprehending language) Auditory cortex (hearing) Broca’s area (forming speech) Prefrontal cortex (decision making, planning) Sensory association cortex (integration of sensory information) Visual association cortex (combining images and object recognition) Visual cortex (processing visual stimuli and pattern recognition)
47.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Language and Speech The mapping of cognitive functions within the cortex began in the 1800s Broca’s area, in the left frontal lobe, is active when speech is generated Wernicke’s area, in the posterior of the left frontal lobe, is active when speech is heard
48.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 38.12 Hearing words Seeing words Speaking words Generating words Max Min
49.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Lateralization of Cortical Function The left side of the cerebrum is dominant regarding language, math, and logical operations The right hemisphere is dominant in recognition of faces and patterns, spatial relations, and nonverbal thinking The establishment of differences in hemisphere function is called lateralization
50.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The two hemispheres exchange information through the fibers of the corpus callosum Severing this connection results in a “split brain” effect, in which the two hemispheres operate independently
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Education, Inc. Information Processing The cerebral cortex receives input from sensory organs and somatosensory receptors Somatosensory receptors provide information about touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and the position of muscles and limbs The thalamus directs different types of input to distinct locations
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Education, Inc. Frontal Lobe Function Frontal lobe damage may impair decision making and emotional responses but leave intellect and memory intact The frontal lobes have a substantial effect on “executive functions”
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.UN02
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Education, Inc. Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates In nearly all vertebrates, the brain has the same number of divisions The hypothesis that higher order reasoning requires a highly convoluted cerebral cortex has been experimentally refuted The anatomical basis for sophisticated information processing in birds (without a highly convoluted neocortex) appears to be a cluster of nuclei in the top or outer portion of the brain (pallium)
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.13 Cerebrum (including pallium) Thalamus Midbrain Hindbrain Cerebellum Cerebrum (including cerebral cortex) Thalamus Midbrain Hindbrain Cerebellum (a) Songbird brain (b) Human brain
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Education, Inc. Neural Plasticity Neural plasticity is the capacity of the nervous system to be modified after birth Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at a synapse Autism, a developmental disorder, involves a disruption of activity-dependent remodeling at synapses Children with autism display impaired communication and social interaction, as well as stereotyped and repetitive behaviors
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.14 (a) Synapses are strengthened or weakened in response to activity. (b) If two synapses are often active at the same time, the strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at both synapses. N1 N2 N1 N2
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Education, Inc. Memory and Learning Neural plasticity is essential to formation of memories Short-term memory is accessed via the hippocampus The hippocampus also plays a role in forming long- term memory, which is stored in the cerebral cortex Some consolidation of memory is thought to occur during sleep
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Education, Inc. Concept 38.4: Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system Much brain activity begins with sensory input A sensory receptor detects a stimulus, which alters the transmission of action potentials to the CNS The information is decoded in the CNS, resulting in a sensation
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Education, Inc. Sensory Reception and Transduction A sensory pathway begins with sensory reception, detection of stimuli by sensory receptors Sensory receptors, which detect stimuli, interact directly with stimuli, both inside and outside the body
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Education, Inc. Sensory transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into a change in the membrane potential of a sensory receptor This change in membrane potential is called a receptor potential Receptor potentials are graded; their magnitude varies with the strength of the stimulus
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.15 (a) Receptor is afferent neuron. Afferent neuron (b) Receptor regulates afferent neuron. Sensory receptor To CNS Stimulus Afferent neuron Receptor protein To CNS Sensory receptor cell Stimulus Neurotransmitter Stimulus leads to neuro- transmitter release.
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Education, Inc. Transmission Sensory information is transmitted as nerve impulses or action potentials Neurons that act directly as sensory receptors produce action potentials and have an axon that extends into the CNS Non-neuronal sensory receptors form chemical synapses with sensory neurons They typically respond to stimuli by increasing the rate at which the sensory neurons produce action potentials
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Education, Inc. The response of a sensory receptor varies with intensity of stimuli If the receptor is a neuron, a larger receptor potential results in more frequent action potentials If the receptor is not a neuron, a larger receptor potential causes more neurotransmitter to be released
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.16 Gentle pressure Sensory receptor More pressure Low frequency of action potentials High frequency of action potentials
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Education, Inc. Perception Perception is the brain’s construction of stimuli Action potentials from sensory receptors travel along neurons that are dedicated to a particular stimulus The brain thus distinguishes stimuli, such as light or sound, solely by the path along which the action potentials have arrived
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Education, Inc. Amplification and Adaptation Amplification is the strengthening of stimulus energy by cells in sensory pathways Sensory adaptation is a decrease in responsiveness to continued stimulation
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Education, Inc. Types of Sensory Receptors Based on energy transduced, sensory receptors fall into five categories Mechanoreceptors Electromagnetic receptors Thermoreceptors Pain receptors Chemoreceptors
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Education, Inc. Mechanoreceptors Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformation caused by stimuli such as pressure, touch, stretch, motion, and sound Some animals use mechanoreceptors to get a feel for their environment For example, cats and many rodents have sensitive whiskers that provide detailed information about nearby objects
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Education, Inc. Electromagnetic Receptors Electromagnetic receptors detect electromagnetic energy such as light, electricity, and magnetism Some snakes have very sensitive infrared receptors that detect body heat of prey against a colder background Many animals apparently migrate using Earth’s magnetic field to orient themselves
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.17 (b) Beluga whales (a) Rattlesnake Infrared receptor Eye
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.17a (a) Rattlesnake Infrared receptor Eye
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.17b (b) Beluga whales
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Education, Inc. Thermoreceptors detect heat and cold In humans, thermoreceptors in the skin and anterior hypothalamus send information to the body’s thermostat in the posterior hypothalamus Thermoreceptors
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Education, Inc. Pain Receptors In humans, pain receptors, or nociceptors, detect stimuli that reflect conditions that could damage animal tissues By triggering defensive reactions, such as withdrawal from danger, pain perception serves an important function Chemicals such as prostaglandins worsen pain by increasing receptor sensitivity to noxious stimuli; aspirin and ibuprofen reduce pain by inhibiting synthesis of prostaglandins
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Education, Inc. Chemoreceptors General chemoreceptors transmit information about the total solute concentration of a solution Specific chemoreceptors respond to individual kinds of molecules Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) both depend on chemoreceptors Smell is the detection of odorants carried in the air, and taste is detection of tastants present in solution
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Education, Inc. Humans can distinguish thousands of different odors Humans and other mammals recognize just five types of tastants: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami Taste receptors are organized into taste buds, mostly found in projections called papillae Any region of the tongue can detect any of the five types of taste
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.18 Tongue Taste buds Sensory receptor cells Key Sensory neuron Taste pore Food molecules Taste bud Papillae Papilla Umami Bitter Sour Salty Sweet
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Education, Inc. Concept 38.5: The mechanoreceptors responsible for hearing and equilibrium detect moving fluid or settling particles Hearing and perception of body equilibrium are related in most animals For both senses, settling particles or moving fluid is detected by mechanoreceptors
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Education, Inc. Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates Most invertebrates maintain equilibrium using mechanoreceptors located in organs called statocysts Statocysts contain mechanoreceptors that detect the movement of granules called statoliths Most insects sense sounds with body hairs that vibrate or with localized vibration-sensitive organs consisting of a tympanic membrane stretched over an internal chamber
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.19 Statolith Ciliated receptor cells Sensory nerve fibers (axons) Cilia
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Education, Inc. Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals In most terrestrial vertebrates, sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium are closely associated in the ear
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.20 Outer ear Inner ear Middle ear Malleus Skull bone Incus Stapes Semicircular canals Auditory nerve to brain Auditory canal Tympanic membrane Oval window Round window Eustachian tube Cochlea Pinna Auditory nerve Cochlear duct Organ of Corti Vestibular canal Tympanic canal Bone To auditory nerve Tectorial membrane Basilar membrane Axons of sensory neurons Hair cells Bundled hairs projecting from a hair cell (SEM) 1µm
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.20a Outer ear Inner ear Middle ear Malleus Skull bone Incus Stapes Semicircular canals Auditory nerve to brain Auditory canal Tympanic membrane Oval window Round window Eustachian tube Cochlea Pinna
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.20b Auditory nerve Cochlear duct Organ of Corti Vestibular canal Tympanic canal Bone
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.20c To auditory nerve Tectorial membrane Basilar membrane Axons of sensory neurons Hair cells
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.20d Bundled hairs projecting from a hair cell (SEM) 1µm
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Education, Inc. Hearing Vibrating objects create pressure waves in the air, which are transduced by the ear into nerve impulses, perceived as sound in the brain The tympanic membrane vibrates in response to vibrations in air The three bones of the middle ear transmit the vibrations of moving air to the oval window on the cochlea
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Education, Inc. The vibrations of the bones in the middle ear create pressure waves in the fluid in the cochlea that travel through the vestibular canal Pressure waves in the canal cause the basilar membrane to vibrate and attached hair cells to vibrate Bending of hair cells causes ion channels in the hair cells to open or close, resulting in a change in auditory nerve sensations that the brain interprets as sound
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.21 Receptor potential More neuro- trans- mitter Time (sec) Membrane potential(mV) Signal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (a) Bending of hairs in one direction −50 −70 0 −70 Receptor potential Less neuro- trans- mitter Time (sec) Membrane potential(mV) Signal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (b) Bending of hairs in other direction −50 −70 0 −70
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Education, Inc. The fluid waves dissipate when they strike the round window at the end of the vestibular canal
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Education, Inc. The ear conveys information about Volume, the amplitude of the sound wave Pitch, the frequency of the sound wave The cochlea can distinguish pitch because the basilar membrane is not uniform along its length Each region of the basilar membrane is tuned to a particular vibration frequency
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Education, Inc. Equilibrium Several organs of the inner ear detect body movement, position, and balance The utricle and saccule contain granules called otoliths that allow us to perceive position relative to gravity or linear movement Three semicircular canals contain fluid and can detect angular movement in any direction
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.22 Semicircular canals Vestibular nerve Vestibule Saccule Utricle Fluid flow Nerve fibers Hair cell Hairs Cupula Body movement PERILYMPH
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Education, Inc. Concept 38.6: The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on light-absorbing pigments The organs used for vision vary considerably among animals, but the underlying mechanism for capturing light is the same
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Education, Inc. Evolution of Visual Perception Light detectors in animals range from simple clusters of cells that detect direction and intensity of light to complex organs that form images Light detectors all contain photoreceptors, cells that contain light-absorbing pigment molecules
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Education, Inc. Light-Detecting Organs Most invertebrates have a light-detecting organ One of the simplest light-detecting organs is that of planarians A pair of ocelli called eyespots are located near the head These allow planarians to move away from light and seek shaded locations
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.23 LIGHT DARK Ocellus Ocellus Visual pigment Photoreceptor Nerve to brain Screening pigment
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Education, Inc. Insects and crustaceans have compound eyes, which consist of up to several thousand light detectors called ommatidia Compound eyes are very effective at detecting movement Compound Eyes
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.24 2 mm
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Education, Inc. Single-lens eyes are found in some jellies, polychaetes, spiders, and many molluscs They work on a camera-like principle: the iris changes the diameter of the pupil to control how much light enters The eyes of all vertebrates have a single lens Single-Lens Eyes
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Education, Inc. The Vertebrate Visual System Vision begins when photons of light enter the eye and strike the rods and cones However, it is the brain that “sees” Animation: Near and Distance Vision
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25a Sclera Choroid Retina Fovea Cornea Suspensory ligament Iris Optic nerve Pupil Aqueous humor Lens Optic disk Vitreous humor Central artery and vein of the retina Retina Optic nerve fibers Rod Cone Neurons Photoreceptors Ganglion cell Amacrine cell Bipolar cell Horizontal cell Pigmented epithelium
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25aa Sclera Choroid Retina Fovea Cornea Suspensory ligament Iris Optic nerve Pupil Aqueous humor Lens Optic disk Vitreous humor Central artery and vein of the retina
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25ab Retina Optic nerve fibers Rod Cone Neurons Photoreceptors Ganglion cell Amacrine cell Bipolar cell Horizontal cell Pigmented epithelium
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25b DisksSynaptic terminal Cell body Outer segment Cone Cone Rod Rod CYTOSOL Retinal: cis isomer Retinal: trans isomer EnzymesLight Retinal Opsin Rhodopsin INSIDE OF DISK
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25ba DisksSynaptic terminal Cell body Outer segment Cone Cone Rod Rod
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25bb CYTOSOL Retinal: cis isomer Retinal: trans isomer EnzymesLight Retinal Opsin Rhodopsin INSIDE OF DISK
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25bc Retinal: cis isomer Retinal: trans isomer EnzymesLight
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.25bd Cone Rod
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Education, Inc. Sensory Transduction in the Eye Transduction of visual information to the nervous system begins when light induces the conversion of cis-retinal to trans-retinal Trans-retinal activates rhodopsin, which activates a G protein, eventually leading to hydrolysis of cyclic GMP
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Education, Inc. When cyclic GMP breaks down, Na+ channels close This hyperpolarizes the cell The signal transduction pathway usually shuts off again as enzymes convert retinal back to the cis form
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.26 Active rhodopsin Transducin Light Inactive rhodopsin Phospho- diesterase Disk membrane Membrane potential (mV) Plasma membrane Hyper- polarization EXTRA- CELLULAR FLUID INSIDE OF DISK CYTOSOL Dark Light Time GMP cGMP Na+ Na+ −40 −70 0
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Education, Inc. Processing of Visual Information in the Retina Processing of visual information begins in the retina In the dark, rods and cones release the neurotransmitter glutamate into synapses with neurons called bipolar cells Bipolar cells are either hyperpolarized or depolarized in response to glutamate
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Education, Inc. In the light, rods and cones hyperpolarize, shutting off release of glutamate The bipolar cells are then either depolarized or hyperpolarized
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Education, Inc. Signals from rods and cones can follow several pathways in the retina A single ganglion cell receives information from an array of rods and cones, each of which responds to light coming from a particular location The rods and cones that feed information to one ganglion cell define a receptive field, the part of the visual field to which the ganglion cell can respond A smaller receptive field typically results in a sharper image
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Education, Inc. The optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm near the cerebral cortex Sensations from the left visual field of both eyes are transmitted to the right side of the brain Sensations from the right visual field are transmitted to the left side of the brain It is estimated that at least 30% of the cerebral cortex takes part in formulating what we actually “see” Processing of Visual Information in the Brain
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Education, Inc. Color Vision Among vertebrates, most fish, amphibians, and reptiles, including birds, have very good color vision Humans and other primates are among the minority of mammals with the ability to see color well Mammals that are nocturnal usually have a high proportion of rods in the retina
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Education, Inc. In humans, perception of color is based on three types of cones, each with a different visual pigment: red, green, or blue These pigments are called photopsins and are formed when retinal binds to three distinct opsin proteins
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Education, Inc. Abnormal color vision results from alterations in the genes for one or more photopsin proteins The genes for the red and green pigments are located on the X chromosome A mutation in one copy of either gene can disrupt color vision in males
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Education, Inc. The brain processes visual information and controls what information is captured Focusing occurs by changing the shape of the lens The fovea is the center of the visual field and contains no rods but a high density of cones The Visual Field
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.UN01 Wild-type hamster Wild-type hamster with SCN from τ hamster τ hamster τ hamster with SCN from wild-type hamster After surgery and transplant Before procedures Circadianperiod(hours) 24 23 22 21 20 19
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Education, Inc. Figure 38.UN03 Cerebral cortex Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Thalamus Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Spinal cord Cerebellum Pons Cerebrum Medulla oblongata
Hinweis der Redaktion
Figure 38.1 Of what use is a star-shaped nose?
Figure 38.2 Nervous system organization
Figure 38.3 Glia in the vertebrate nervous system
Figure 38.3a Glia in the vertebrate nervous system (LM)
Figure 38.4 The vertebrate nervous system
Figure 38.5 Functional hierarchy of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system
Figure 38.6a Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 1: MRI)
Figure 38.6b Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 2: brain development)
Figure 38.6ba Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 2a: brain development, chart)
Figure 38.6bb Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 2b: brain development, embryo)
Figure 38.6bc Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 2c: brain development, child)
Figure 38.6c Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 3: cerebrum and cerebellum)
Figure 38.6d Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 4: diencephalon and brainstem)
Figure 38.7 Dolphins can be asleep and awake at the same time.
Figure 38.8 The limbic system
Figure 38.9 Effects of addictive drugs on the reward system of the mammalian brain
Figure 38.10 Functional brain imaging in the working brain
Figure 38.10a Functional brain imaging in the working brain (part 1: happy music)
Figure 38.10b Functional brain imaging in the working brain (part 2: sad music)
Figure 38.11 The human cerebral cortex
Figure 38.12 Mapping language areas in the cerebral cortex
Figure 38.UN02 In-text figure, Phineas Gage, p. 777
Figure 38.13 Comparison of regions for higher cognition in avian and human brains
Figure 38.14 Neural plasticity
Figure 38.15 Neuronal and non-neuronal sensory receptors
Figure 38.16 Coding of stimulus intensity by a single sensory receptor
Figure 38.17 Specialized electromagnetic receptors
Figure 38.17a Specialized electromagnetic receptors (part 1: infrared)
Figure 38.17b Specialized electromagnetic receptors (part 2: magnetic)
Figure 38.18 Human taste receptors
Figure 38.19 The statocyst of an invertebrate
Figure 38.20 Exploring the structure of the human ear
Figure 38.20a Exploring the structure of the human ear (part 1: overview)
Figure 38.20b Exploring the structure of the human ear (part 2: cochlea)
Figure 38.20c Exploring the structure of the human ear (part 3: organ of Corti)
Figure 38.20d Exploring the structure of the human ear (part 4: hair cell, SEM )
Figure 38.21 Sensory reception by hair cells
Figure 38.22 Organs of equilibrium in the inner ear
Figure 38.23 Ocelli and orientation behavior of a planarian
Figure 38.24 Compound eyes
Figure 38.25a Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 1)
Figure 38.25aa Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 1a: overview)
Figure 38.25ab Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 1b: retina)
Figure 38.25b Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 2)
Figure 38.25ba Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 2a: photoreceptors)
Figure 38.25bb Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 2b: rhodopsin)
Figure 38.25bc Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 2c: retinal isomers)
Figure 38.25bd Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 2d: photoreceptors, SEM)
Figure 38.26 Production of the receptor potential in a rod cell
Figure 38.UN01 Skills exercise: designing an experiment using genetic mutants
Figure 38.UN03 Summary of key concepts: vertebrate brain regions
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