Advanced Biology Final Review

1. H U MA N
A N A T O MY
AND
P HY S I OL OG
Y F I NAL

2. Anatomy: The study of the shape and structure of body parts.
Physiology: The branch of biological science that studies and describes
how body parts work or function.
Levels of Structural Organization

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL
ORGANISMS
*The four elements that make up the bulk of living matter:
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen
 Made of Cells- A l l l i v i n g t h i n g s a r e ma d e o f
o n e o r mo r e c e l l s .
 Growth and Development- G r o wt h r e q u i r e s a l l
l i v i n g t h i n g s t o t a k e i n ma t e r i a l f r o m
t h e e n v i r o n me n t a n d o r g a n i z e t h e
ma t e r i a l i n t o i t s o wn s t r u c t u r e s . To
a c c o mp l i s h g r o wt h , a n o r g a n i s m e x p e n d s
s o me o f t h e e n e r g y i t a c q u i r e s d u r i n g
me t a b o l i s m.
 Obtain and use energy (metabolism)- A l l L i v i n g
t h i n g s e x h i b i t a r a p i d t u r n o v e r o f
c h e mi c a l ma t e r i a l s . Me t a b o l i s m
i n v o l v e s e x c h a n g e s o f c h e mi c a l ma t t e r
wi t h t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n me n t a n d
e x t e n s i v e t r a n s f o r ma t i o n s o f o r g a n i c
ma t t e r wi t h i n t h e c e l l s o f a l i v i n g
o r g a n i s m.

4. Coronal/frontal: Separates the
body into Anterior and Posterior
parts
Median: Separates body into
right and left parts
Transverse/horizontal: Separates
the body into superior and
inferior parts
Saggital: Any plane parallel to
the median plane

5. Medial: Toward
the midline of the Palmar: Interior
body Surface of the
hand
Lateral:
Pertaining to the Plantar: Sole of
side the foot
Superior: Above Proximal:
Toward the
Inferior: Below attached base of
an organ or
Superficial: Near structure.
the surface
Distal: Away
Deep: Further from the point of
from the surface attachment

6. The Cell

7. Nucleus: Stores genetic information and controls the
cell.
Nucleolus: Makes Ribosomes
Mitochondria: Controls release of energy and forms
ATP.
Lysosome: Digests bacteria in the cell
Peroxisomes: Detoxify toxins
Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins

8. Centriole: “Spin” the mitotic spindle
Smooth E.R.: Steroid synthesis
Rough E.R.: Attachment site for
ribosomes and transports proteins
Microvilli: Increases the cell membrane
surface area
Cell Membrane: Confines cell contents and
regulates entry and exit of materials

9. MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
Isotonic Solution: Water is continuously moving
in and out of the cell
Hypotonic Solution: Water is
moving into the cell, causing the
cell to expand and rupture.
Hypertonic Solution: Water is moving out of the
cell, causing the cell to deflate.

10. MITOSIS
Prophase:
•Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers.
•Chromosomes first appear to be duplex structures.
•Chromatin coils and condenses to form deeply
staining bodies
•The nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear
•The spindle forms through the migration of the
centrioles
Metaphase:
•Chromosomes align on the equator of the spindle

11. MITOSIS
Anaphase:
•Centromeres break
•Chromosomes begin to migrate toward opposite poles of
the cell
Telophase:
•When chromosomes cease poleward movement, this
phase begins
•Cleavage furrow forms
•Nuclear membrane and nucleus reappear
Interphase
•Mitosis process will begin again

12. SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES
Membrane Tissue type Location Function
Mucous Top layer: Respiratory, Protect, lubricate,
Epithelial Digestive, Urinary, secrete, and
Bottom layer: and Reproductive absorb
Connective tract
Serous Top layer: Ventral body Lubricate
Epithelial cavities and organ
Bottom layer: linings
Connective
Cutaneous Top layer: Body’s exterior Protects deeper
Epithelial body tissue from
Bottom layer: external hazards
Connective
Synovial Connective tissue Joint cavity linings Lubricates to
and bone ends reduce friction

13. SKIN STRUCTURE
Basic Skin
Functions:
•Protects deeper
tissue from:
-Mechanical
Damage
- Chemical
Damage
- Bacterial
Damage
- Ultraviolet

14. PROTEINS FOUND IN SKIN
A. Yellow, reddish-brown, and
black color. Produced when skin
Keratin is exposed to sun. A localized
concentration of this is a freckle.
Carotene B. Provides stretchiness to the
skin.
Melanin C. Waterproofing protein, found in
epidermal cells. Found in large
amounts in hair and nails.
Elastin
D. Factor in skin color, that comes
from food. Orange-ish color.

15. Types Burns Rule of Nines
First Degree: Damage to epidermis. Redness,
peeling skin, and slight pain and swelling.
Example is sunburn.
Second Degree: Damage to epidermis and A "Rule of Nines" chart is used to
slight damage to dermis. Blisters, swelling, determine the total body surface area
pain and charred skin. Example is touching a that has been burned. The chart divides
hot stove the body into sections that represent 9
percent of the body surface area.
9% Head
9% each Arm
Third Degree: destroys epidermis and 18% each Leg
dermis. Numbness, loss of skin and 36% Torso
tissue. Example is burning in a fire. 1% Pubic Area

16. RESPONSE TO INJURY
1. Bleeding
Inflammatory response
2. Scab Formation
Phagocytic cells and Fibrin clot
3. New Epidermal cells formed
Form Germinativum layer – building outward
Fibrin disintegrates
4. Scab is shed, Epidermis complete, presence
of shallow depression
Fibroblasts producing scar tissue

17. AGING
Epidermis Thins
Vitamin D production decreases 75%
Melanocyte activity decreases
Glandular activity decreses
Blood supply to Dermis decreases
Hair follicles stop functioning
Dermis thins – elastin decreases

18. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Functions:
•Supports body organs
•Packages and protects body organs
•Supports and binds other tissues
Characteristics:
•Has large amounts of nonliving matrix
Dense Fiberous Bone
Skeletal
Hyaline Cartilage Adipose (fat) Areolar

19. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Functions:
•Forms mucous, serous, and epidermal membranes
•Absorb and secrete substances
•Forms hormones
Characteristics:
•Most widely distributed tissue type in body
•Covers external surfaces
•Lines internal surfaces
Simple Squamous Simple Cubial Stratified Squamous

20. NERVOUS TISSUE
Functions:
•Transmits electrochemical impulses
Characteristics:
•Basis of the major controlling system of the body
•Forms the brain and spinal cord

21. MUSCLE TISSUE
Functions:
•Allows for organ movements within the body
•Shortens
Characteristics:
•Allows you to smile, grasp, swim, ski, and
shoot an arrow
Cardiac Smooth Skeletal

22. Characteristics of Muscle tissue types Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
Voluntarily controlled X
Involuntarily controlled X X
Banded appearance X X
Single nucleus X X
Multinucleate X
Found attached to bones X
Direct eyeballs X
Found in walls of stomach, uterus, and arteries X
Contains spindle shaped cells X
Contains cylindrical cells X
Contains long, non branching, cylindrical cells X
Displays intercalated discs X
Concerned with body locomotion X
Changes internal volume of a contracting X
organ
Tissue of the Circulatory pump X

23. SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS
 Fast  Slow
•Contract quickly and strongly
•Large Diameter •Resistant to fatigue
•Low resistance to fatigue(fatigue quickly) •Slow to contract
•Have twitches with a very brief contraction •Small Diameter
phase •High oxygen supply
•Few mitochondria Example: A distance runner
•Can adapt to aerobic
metabolism by generating
more mitochondria
Example: A sprinter

24. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
Functions of Skeletal Muscles:
•Produce skeletal movement
•Maintain body position
•Support soft tissue Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle
•Guard openings Perimysium: Surrounds muscle fascicles
•Maintain body temperature Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle cells
•Store nutrient reserves Tendon(aponuerosis): Connects muscle to bone

25. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF A MUSCLE FIBER (CELL)
1. The plasma membrane is call the Sarcolemma and the cytoplasm is called
the sarcoplasm
a. The sarcoplasm is occupied mainly by long protien bundles, called
myofibrils
>myofibrils – subdivisions of muscle fibers made up of myofilament
> myofilaments – responsible for muscle contractions and
banded appearance of muscle
thin filaments are made up of protein actin
thick filaments are made up protein myosin
2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is found around myofibrils. It releases calcium in
the beginning of a muscle contraction
3. Sarcomeres are the contractile part of the muscle

26. MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Contraction depends on three
things:
1. Duration of neurostimulus
2. Number of Calcium ions present
3. Availability of ATP
1. Nuerotransmitter ACH is released by a motor neuron and binds to
sarcolema
2. Sodium ions rush into a cell causing
3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca+ causing
4. Myosin to be activiated
Sliding Filament Theory: Thin and thick filaments slide along each other,
shortening the muscle

27. TENSION PRODUCTION
Muscle Tone- •Normal tension and muscle firmness of a muscle at rest
• Increased muscle tone increases metabolic energy used
Tension Types:
Isotonic Contraction- Results in motion
Ex: lifting weights
Isometric Contraction- Muscle develops tension, but
doesn’t move
Relaxation: Ex: pushing against a door
Muscle returns to resting length because of:
1. Elastic forces (pull of ligaments)
2. Opposing muscle contractions
3. Gravity

28. ATP AND CREATINE PHOSPHATE
 ATP – energy molecule used by cells  Creatine Phosphate-
Two ways to generate ATP: Acts as an energy
1. Aerobic Metabolism reserve in muscle
tissue/stores ATP
 Produces 34 ATP
 Primary Source when resting
2. Anaerobic Glycolysis
 Produces 2 ATP
 Primary source when working muscles

29. MUSCLE FATIGUE AND RECOVERY
Muscle Fatigue occurs when muscles can no longer preform the
required activity. This happens because they run out of ATP,
Calcium, ions, or nervous signals.
>Results in:
-Depletion of metabolic reserves
-Low ph (acidic)
-Muscle exhaustion and pain
-Damage to sarcolema and sarcoplasmic reticulum
Recovery period- time required after exertion for muscles to return to normal
1. Oxygen becomes available
2. Mitochondrial activity resumes
The Cori Cycle removes and recycles lactic acid.
1. Blood takes lactic acid to the liver.
2. The liver turns in into glycogen
3. Muscles use glycogen at peak exertion

30. HORMONES AND MUSCLE CHANGES
Hormones increased during physical activity:
1. Growth
2. Testosterone
3. Thyroid
4. Epinephrine
5. Endorphines
Hypertrophy – muscle growth
Atrophy – muscle shrinkage
Breakdown begins in weeks or days

31. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
Found:
Only in the heart
Functions:
Produces heart contractions
Characteristics:
1. Single nucleus
2. Involuntary
3. Intercalated disks
> Intercalated disks – special contact points for cells
4. Striated (branched)

32. SMOOTH MUSCLE
Found:
1. Around other tissues
2. In blood vessels and arteries
3. In reproductive, glandular, digestive, and urinary systems
4. In integumentary (skin) system
5. Hair follicles
Characteristics:
1. Single nucleus
2. No sarcomeres, tendons, or aponeurosis
3. Scattered myosin filaments
4. Involuntarily controlled
5. Long and slender
Functions:
1. Open and close respiratory passageways
2. Raising arm hairs
3. Moves food in digestive tract
4. Forces urine out of urinary tract

33. Classification (by shape)
Short- somewhat cube-shaped and include the carpals and tarsals.
Long- More long than wide, have a definite shaft and two ends, and consist of all limb bones except
patellas, carpals, and tarsals.
Flat- thin, flattened, often curved bones that include most skull bones, the sternum, and ribs.
Irregular- include vertebrae and coxae.
Functions
Support
Protection
Movement
Storage
Blood Cell Formation

34. BONES- BASIC STRUCTURE
Articular
cartilage (site of red marrow)
-spongey bone
-red blood cell production
Epiphyseal
plate
(site of yellow marrow)
-compact bone
-fat storage

35. BONE FORMATION
1. Hyaline Cartilage “models” are completely covered with bone matrix by bone-forming
cells (osteoblasts).
2. Hyaline Cartilage is digested away leaving a hollow cavity (yellow marrow).
3. After birth, most hyaline cartilage models have been converted to bone- except
articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates.
Cells in Bones:
1. Osteocytes- mature
bone cells
2. Osteoclasts-
bone-eating cells
3. Osteoblasts –
matrix depositing bone
cells

36. BONE REMODELING
•Bone is dynamic and changing
•Bone remodeling is continuously happening due to changes in:
1. Calcium levels in the bone matrix
1. Too much calcium - hypercalcemia
2. Too little calcium - Parathyroid Hormone from
parathyroid gland alerts osteoclasts to breakdown bone
matrix and release calcium into blood
2. Pull of gravity and pull of muscles
1. Breaking of bones
2. Stress on bones makes them thicker

37. FRACTURES
Simple – clean break Greenstick – incomplete
that stays in skin break; bone splintering
Compound – bone Spiral – twistng forces
ends break skin break bone
Reductions:
Compression-
bone crushed
1. Closed – nonsurgical
realignment and splinting
2. Open – surgical realignment

38. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
 Cavities between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This
fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones, which allows for greater mobility
Synovial Membrane: Lubricant that minimizes friction and abrasion of joint surfaces.
Articular Cartilage: Substance that keeps bone ends from crushing when compressed.

39. FIBROUS AND CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
 Fibrous joints –
sutured joints,  Cartilaginous joints –
protecting the connected by cartilage
underlying structures
greatly

40. THE HEAD AND NECK - MUSCLES
trapezius

41. THE HEAD AND NECK - BONES
Parietal Coronal Suture
Temporal Frontal
Lambdoidal suture Sphenoid
Occipital
Ethmoid
Nasal
External auditory meatus
Lacrimal
Mastoid process Zygomatic
Maxilla
Mandible
Temporal
Styloid process
Mandibular condyle

42. THE HEAD AND NECK- THE BRAIN
Pons
Medulla
(Spinal Cord)

43. THE HEAD AND NECK- BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS
Alzheimer’s disease- Progressive degeneration of the brain with abnormal protein
deposits
Coma- Total nonresponsiveness to stimulation
Concussion- Slight and transient brain injury
Contusion- Traumatic injury that destroys brain tissue
Intracranial hemorrhage- May cause medulla oblongata to be wedged into a foramen
magnum by pressure of blood
Multiple sclerosis- Autoimmune disorder with extensive demyelination

44. THE HEAD AND NECK – EYE

45. HEAD AND NECK - EAR
Semicircular canal Pinna
Incus
Malleous
Stapius
Auditory tube
Vestibule

46. HEAD AND NECK – SINUSES
Sinuses are mucus-lined, air-filled cavities in bones.
Their purpose is to lighten the skull and serve as residence chambers for speech.
They are very susceptible to infection because they are directly linked to nasal
passages (outside world and germs).

47. HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions:
•Monitors changes inside and outside the body
•Processes and interprets info received and makes
decisions
•Commands responds to muscles and glands
Central Nervous System: brain and spinal cord- Control center of the nervous system
Peripheral Nervous System : Composed of cranial and spinal nerves
and ganglia. Divided into Sensory and Motor divisions.
Motor:
Autonomic nervous system: Controls involuntary
movements and regulates activity of the heart, smooth muscle,
and glands.
>Sympathetic- Fight or Flight System
- Activities that expand energy
>Parasympathetic- Normally in control
- Conserves and stores energy
Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary activities- such as
activation of skeletal muscles

48. HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neuroglia
•Support, insulate, and protect cells and are able to divide
Neurons
•Transmit electrical messages from one area of the body to another area
•Release neurotransmitters
•Are unable to divide
1. Motor neurons (Efferent) –Sends out 2.Sensory neurons (Afferent) –
signals from CNS to the body Brings signals to CNS from elsewhere
in body
Cell body
Axonal
terminal
Schwann cell
Direction nucleus
Myelin
of impulse
Dendrites Nodes of Ranvier
Axonal terminal: Releases neurotransmitters Myelin Sheath: Increases speed of impulse
Dendrite: Conducts electrical currents toward cell body Cell body: Location of nucleus
Axon: Conducts impulses away from cell body

49. HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEM
Types of Sensory receptors:
1. Naked Nerve Endings – pain and temperature
2. Meissener’s Corpuscle – touch and caress
3. Pacinian Corpuscle – deep pressure
4. Proprioceptors –degree of stretch
Nerve Impulses
1. Resting neuron- negatively charged inside the cell membrane and positively
charged outside the cell membrane
2. Stimulated neuron- the permeability of a patch on the cell membrane alters.
Positively charged sodium ions begin to enter the cell, making the inside
locally permeable (depolarization).
3. The nerve impulse- depolarization spreads along the cell membrane and
eventually the charge on either side of the cell membrane is temporarily
reversed.
4. Repolarization- cell membrane again alters its permeability. + charged
sodium ions begin to pass out of the cell. Finally, outside of the cell is
positively charged and inside in negatively charged.

50. HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEM

51. HEAD AND NECK – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Functions:
•Produce hormones
>hormones –Chemical messengers that interact with specific receptors to regulate cell
activity.
Composed of:
•Adrenal glands
•Pancreas
•Pituitary glands
•Ovaries/Testes
•Parathyroid gland
•Thyroid gland

52. HEAD AND NECK – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Glands
Gland Location Function
Pituitary Brain •MASTER GLAND
•Controls other glands
•Regulates: growth metabolism, secretion of other
glands, reproductive functions
Parathyroid Vocal chords, •Regulates calcium absorption and deposition
beside Pituitary
gland
Thyroid Vocal chords •Stimulates growth and metabolism
•Produce parathyroid hormone
Adrenal Kidneys •“fight or flight” response
•Regulate mineral/water balance in body
•Inhibit inflammation
•Regulate reproductive organ activity

53. HEAD AND NECK–ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-HORMONES
Hormone Location Function
Growth Anterior Pituitary Stimulates growth
Gland
Follicle- Anterior Pituitary Stimulates production of ova and sperm
stimulating Gland
Prolactin Anterior Pituitary Stimulates milk production in women’s breasts
Gland
PTH Parathyroid Gland Regulate calcium absorption and deposition
Calcitonin Thyroid Glands Causes blood calcium to be deposited in bones as calcium
salts
Adrenaline Adrenal Gland “fight or flight” response
Cortisol Adrenal Gland Stress resistance
Estrogens Adrenal Gland Stimulate female reproductive organs
Glucagon Pancreas Stimulates release of glucose into the blood
Insulin Pancreas Stimulates storage and use of glucose
Testosterone Testes Stimulates development of reproductive characteristics
Melatonin Pineal Gland Signals duration of darkness to the body, may help with
biorythms

54. THE BACK- SPINAL CORD
3.
1. Body
5. 2. 5.
2. Vertebral 4. 1. 4.
foramen
3.
4. 4.
3. Spinous 2.
process
1.
4. Transverse
process 3.
4. 5. 5. 4.
5. Superior 2.
articular
process 1.

55. THE BACK- MUSCLES
Deltoid
Trapezius
Erector spinal
Latissimus dorsi
External oblique
Gluteous medias
Gluteus maximus

56. THE THORACIC CAVITY- BONES
Manubrium
Body Sternum
Xiphoid process
12 Pairs of Ribs:
1-7: True Ribs
8-12: False Ribs
11&12: Floating Ribs

57. THE THORACIC CAVITY- SCAPULA
Axillary

58. MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR TRUNK
Latissimus External intercostal
dorsi
Pectoralis major

59. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Functions:
1. Delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body
tissues
2. Protects body; destroys bacteria and tumor
cells
Made up of:
1. The Heart
2. Blood vessels

60. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- BLOOD
•Carries Oxygen, CO2, Nutrients, and Waste products.
•Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
1. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) 2. White blood cells (Leukocytes)
-A red blood cell’s primary function is to -The main function of a white blood cell is to
deliver oxygen to tissues. They also help in fight infections and viruses in the body. There
ridding the body of carbon dioxide. These are 5 types of white blood cells:
cells have a biconcave lens shape, which
provides more surface area so O2 and CO2 1. Neutrophils- Most abundant white blood
molecules can attach to the hemoglobin on cell. Crucial in fighting infections.
the blood cells. 2. Eosinophils- act against parasites and are
responsible for allergic reactions
3. Basophils- Help with the inflammatory
response when tissue is damage
4. Monocytes- Act against the multiplication of
germs
5. Phagocytes- Engulfs and absorbs waste
3. Platelets material
-The function of platelets
is to stop blood from
leaving wounds

61. BLOOD TYPING
There are 4 types of blood:
A: -Produces B antibodies
-Can donate to A and AB
-Can receive from O and A
B: -Produces A antibodies
-Can donate to B and AB
-Can receive from O and B
AB: -Produces neither A nor B antibodies
In addition to the A and B antigens, there is
-Can donate to AB
a third antigen called the Rh factor, which
-Can receive from O, A, B, and AB
can be either present (+) or absent ( – ). In
general, Rh negative blood is given to Rh-
O: -Produces A and B antibodies
negative patients, and Rh positive blood or
-Can donate to O, A, B, and AB
Rh negative blood may be given to Rh
-Can receive from O
positive patients.

62. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: HEART
Path of a red blood cell: Aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, vein, inferior
vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, arterioles, capillaries, venules,
pulmonary vein, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta
Pulmonary Circuit Systemic Circuit
•The right side of the •Left side of the
heart heart
•Pumps blood to the •Pumps blood to
lungs the entire body
Arteries: Carry blood away from heart
Veins: Carry blood to heart
Capillaries: Between arteries and veins

63. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Three influences of blood pressure:
1. Cardiac output
2. Peripheral resistance
3. Blood volume

64. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Functions:
•Provides an extensive surface area for gas exchange between air and blood.
•Moves air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs along the respiratory
passageways.
•Protects respiratory surfaces from dehydration and environmental variations, and
defends the respiratory system and other tissues from invasion of pathogens.
•Produces sounds involved in speaking, singing, and other forms of communication.
•Facilitates the detection of olefactory stimuli by olefactory receptors in the superior
portions of the nasal cavity.
Organization:
•The Respiratory is divided into:
1. The upper respiratory system
-nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx
1. The lower respiratory system
larynx, trachea, bronchi, branchioles, and alveoli

65. UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Opening to auditory tube
Frontal sinus
Nasal cavity
Sphenoid sinus
Conchae
Pharyngeal tonsil
Hard pallet Nasopharynx
Oral cavity
oropharynx
Soft pallet
Palantine tonsil
Lingual tonsils
Epiglottis
Hyoid bone Laryngopharynx
Vocal folds (chords)
Esophagus
Trachea

66. LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Larynx
Trachea
Brochi
Superior Lobe
Mediastinum
Inferior Lobe
Visceral pleura
Pleural space
Parietal pleura

67. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- HOW IT WORKS

68. THE ABDOMINOPELVIC AREA- PELVIS
True pelvis
False pelvis
Acetabulum Obturator foramen
ischium

69. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Functions:
•Breaks down foodstuffs into smaller particles that can be absorbed and used
as fuel for the body.
Composed of:
•Mouth
•Esophagus
•Stomach
•Small intestine
•Large intestine
•Rectum
•Anus

70. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The Mouth- A cavity lined with a mucous membrane. In the mouth, the teeth chop and grind food into
smaller pieces and mix it with saliva
The Esophagus- A muscular tube that’s about 10 inches long. This is where your tongue pushes food,
when you swallow. The wall of the esophagus contains smooth muscle, which involuntarily squeezes to
carry food from the mouth to the stomach.
The Stomach- An elastic, muscular organ. This is where the esophagus empties. The stomach contracts
and expands, churning food and mixing it with digestive juices. The stomach then empties into the small
intestine.
The Small Intestine- The small intestine is divided into three sections: the duodenum, the first foot, the
jejunum, the next 8 feet, and the ileum, the last 12 feet. The walls of the small intestine have millions of
glands that produce additional digestive juices. These walls also have millions of tiny finger-like
projections, called villi, that absorb nutrients and deliver them to the bloodstream. Bile, a digestive juice, is
released from the gallbladder into the small intestine to help break down food. Bile is produced in the liver
and stored in the gallbladder.
The Large Intestine- Food that was not digested in the small intestine moves on to the large intestine.
This part of the digestive tract absorbs water, essential salts, and certain vitamins and drugs.
Rectum and Anus-The remaining waste travels to the last section of the digestive tract, the rectum.
Waste is eliminated through the Anus, which has a voluntarily controlled sphincter muscle, in adults. The
waste leaves the body as feces.

71. THE URINARY SYSTEM
Functions:
•Rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes
•Conserves body water or eliminates excess
Made up of:
1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary Bladder
4. Urethra

72. THE URINARY SYSTEM
Kidneys-
• Blood filtration and urine production
•Regulation of volume, chemical composition, and pH of blood
•Regulation of blood pressure
•Stimulation of RBC production
Ureters- The body has two ureters, one for each kidney. The ureters extend from the
kidney to the bladder. In the Ureters, urine is moved from the kidneys to the bladder.
Bladder- A hollow, elastic, muscular organ situated in the pelvic cavity. When the
bladder is filled with urine, the stretching stimulates nerve endings, which send a
message to the brain that the bladder is full. A sphincter muscle clamps shut the exit
of the bladder. When this muscle is relaxed, urine flows out of the body, through the
urethra.
Urethra- a small tube that leads from the bladder to the exterior of the body. In
females, the urethra is embedded in the front wall of the vagina. In males, the urethra
passes through the prostate gland and the penis.

73. THE LEGS- MUSCLES
Gluteus Medius
Tensorfacialata
Gluteus Maximus
Sartoreus
Rectus Femoris
Semitendinosis
Gracilis
Vastus lateralis Biceps Femoris
Vastus medialis Semimembrinosis
Peroneus
Gastrucnemius
Tibialis anterior
Soleus
Achilles tendon

74. THE LEGS- BONES Femur
Intercondular
emminence
Tibial
tuberosity

75. THE FOOT
Talus
Tarsals
Calcaneous

76. THE ARMS-MUSCLES

77. THE ARM- BONES
Deltoid
tuberosity
Coronoid
fossa

78. THE HAND