Criminal Justice

1. © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved1
Introduction to Administration of Justice
Chapter 2
The Crime Picture
Scott Moller, JD

2. © 2014 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Compare and contrast the UCR/NIBRS and the NCVS data collection
and reporting programs.
Describe the National Crime Victimization Survey Program (NCVS),
including its purpose, history, and what it tells us about crime in the US
today.
Describe the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports/National Incident Based
Reporting System (UCR/NIBRS) Program, including its purpose, history,
and what it tells us about crime in the US today.
Describe how the special categories of crime discussed in this chapter
are significant today.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

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Why is Crime Data Important?
Crime data is used to:
• Design new crime control
initiatives
• Develop funding requests
• Plan new laws – e.g., 3 strikes law
• Argue/shape policy – video (8:08)
Getting accurate data is difficult:
• Social events like crime are
complex & difficult to quantify
• Including/excluding crimes reflects
bias, focus

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1. FBI Uniform Crime Reporting System/National Incident-
Based Reporting System (UCR/NIBRS) – produces
annual overview of major crime, called “Crime in the
United States”
2. Bureau of Justice Statistics produces National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS), an annual survey of
selected households
Two National Crime Data Sources

5. Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
2.1
Describe the FBI’s UCR/NIBRS
Program, including its purpose, history,
and what it tells us about crime in the
US today.

6. Original UCR was started in 1930, provided the first crime index
The FBI defined crimes, summed totals for 7 major crimes ("index
offenses"), expressed as a rate: crimes per 100,000 people.
1. Murder
2. Forcible Rape
3. Robbery
4. Aggravated Assault
5. Burglary
6. Larceny-Theft
7. Motor Vehicle Theft
8. Arson was added in 1979, but some law enforcement agencies
still aren’t reporting arsons like other crimes.
Today, about 18,000 law enforcement agencies provide data, and each
year, the FBI produces Crime in the United States – an annual
overview of crime rates across the US.
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)2.1

7. National Incident-Based Reporting System
7
• In 1989, FBI began accepting NIBRS data
• A significant redesign of the original UCR Program
• Attempt to enhance the quantity, quality, and timeliness of
crime-data collection by law enforcement
• Incident-driven, not summary-based
• Gathers details about each criminal incident
– place of occurrence
– weapon used
– type and value of property damaged or stolen
– personal characteristics of the offender and victim
• Includes 22 general offenses
• The NIBRS format still has not been fully adopted
2.1

8. 8
Comparison: UCR vs. UCR/NIBRS2.1
Traditional
UCR
• Monthly crime counts
• Counts one offense per
incident; hierarchical
• Attempts = completions
• Collects weapon information
for murder, robbery and
aggravated assault
• Collects assault info in 5
categories
• Counts for 8 major crimes +
21 other offenses
Enhanced
UCR/NIBRS
• Individual incident reports
• Records each offense in an
incident
• Attempts distinguished
• Collects weapon information
for all violent offenses
• Restructures definition of
assault
• Details for 8 major crimes +
49 other offenses

9. Against
Persons
Against
Property
Criminal
Homicide
Rape
Assault
Robbery
Burglary
Larceny
Motor Vehicle
Theft
Arson
The 8 Major Crimes “Index Offenses”2.1
9
Against
Public Order

10. © 2014 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
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2.1
Fig. 2-1
The Criminal
Justice Funnel
Model
The numbers here
aren't significant; the
general idea is that
there is a winnowing
process.

11. © 2014 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
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1933 1941 1960 1980 1990 2009
770
508
1887
5950
5897
3466
3 Major Shifts in US Crime Since
UCR Began (+ a 4th?)
Crimes per 100,000 people
1933-41 – Drop (770 to 508)
• Young men off to WWII
1960-1990 – Rise (1887 to 5950)
• Baby boomers enter 20s
• Social norms dissolving
• More drug crime
• Better data collection
1991-2009 – Drop (5897 to 3466)
• War on Drugs
• Get Tough On Crime; prison
• Advances: DNA, real-time
communications, Internet
• Economic expansion
• Victims’ rights movement
• Aging population
2010-Present
• More violent crime
• Increased gang activity
• Prisoners released
• Third Way 4th Crime Wave
US Historical Trends

12. Murder Time Span Victims Event
s
Example
Mass Together 4+ 1 McVeigh truck bomb, 168
victims in 1995
Serial Can be months,
years apart
3+ 3+ Dahmer cannibalism, 17
victims from 1978-91
Spree Little to no break 2+ 2+ DC snipers, 13 victims over 3
2.1 Part I Offenses: Murder
• UCR defines murder as the unlawful killing of one human by another,
whether first degree (planned) or second degree (crime of passion)
• Cases of non-negligent manslaughter are included
• Suicides, justifiable homicides (self-defense), negligent homicides and
attempts are excluded
• Murder is usually precipitated by an argument and is most common:
• in warmest months
• in southern states
• affecting victims age 20-24

13. Part I Offenses: Rape
13
Forcible Rape
– Forcible carnal knowledge (intercourse) against victim’s will
– Until 2012, UCR definition only included women
– This is the least-reported violent crime, with 1 of 4 reported
– Most commonly occurs in summer months
Sexual battery
– Intentional, wrongful sexual contact without consent
– Broader than rape, including non-intercourse, has included men
Date Rape
– Forced sexual intercourse that occurs within the context of a dating
relationship
– Most rapes are committed by acquaintances
Changing Values
– Rape within marriage
– Rape of a male – 28 yr old teacher Tina Amato,
with 15 year old student
2.1

14. Part I Offenses: Robbery
14
Robbery
– The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property in
the immediate possession of another by force or
violence and/or by putting the victim in fear (strong
arm robbery)
– Highway robbery occurs outdoors, commonly as a
victim is walking in a public place
– Purse-snatching and pick-pocketing are excluded
– In 2010, individuals were the most common target of
robbers
– UCR/NIBRS Program scores a robbery as one robbery,
even if multiple victims in one event
– Primarily an urban offense
– In 2010, most robbery arrestees were young (65%
under age 25) male (88%) minorities (58%)
2.1
Flash Robbery
video (2:00)

15. Part I Offenses: Assault
15
Assault
– Inflicting injury upon the person of another
– Two types: simple (typically pushing/shoving) and
aggravated/felonious (weapon used and/or medical
treatment required)
Aggravated Assault
– Inflicting serious injury upon the person of another
– Most frequent in the summer months
– Most aggravated assaults are committed with blunt objects
or objects near at hand
– Assaulters often know their victims, resulting in a high
clearance/arrest rate (56.4% in 2010)
2.1

16. Part I Offenses: Burglary, Larceny
16
Burglary
– The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft
– UCR has 3 classifications:
1. Forcible entry (60.5% in 2010)
2. Non-forcible entry (33.2% in 2010)
3. Attempted forcible entry (6.3% in 2010)
– Clearance rate (arrest rate) for burglary is low
– Burglars usually do not know their victims
– Most burglaries are of unoccupied homes during daylight hours
Larceny-Theft
– The unlawful taking/attempted taking of property from another
– Most reported (major thefts) and most under-reported (minor)
– ID Theft is a new kind of larceny, fueled by virtual identity
2.1

17. Part I Offenses: Motor Vehicle Theft, Arson
17
Motor Vehicle Theft
– Self-propelled vehicles that run on the ground and not on rails
– Most insurance companies require police reports before they will
reimburse car owners for their losses
– Clearance rate in 2010 was 11.8%
– In 2010, most motor vehicle theft arrestees were young (42% under
25) males (82.5%)
– Carjacking – occupant is forced from the vehicle,
which is then stolen
Arson
– Any willful or malicious burning, with or without intent to defraud, a
dwelling, public building, motor vehicle, etc.
– Added to UCR Part I offenses by act of Congress in 1979, but some
law enforcement agencies still do not submit this data
2.1

18. Part II Offenses: Arrest data only
18
• Other assaults (simple)
• Forgery and counterfeiting
• Fraud
• Embezzlement
• Stolen property: buying, receiving,
possessing
• Vandalism
• Weapons: carrying, possessing,
etc.
• Prostitution and commercialized
vice
• Sex offenses (except forcible rape,
prostitution, and commercialized
vice)
• Drug abuse violations
• Gambling
2.1
• Offenses against the family and
children
• Driving under the influence
• Liquor laws
• Drunkenness
• Disorderly conduct
• Vagrancy
• All other offenses
• Suspicion
• Curfew and loitering laws (persons
under age 18)
• Runaways (under age 18)

19. Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
2.2
Describe the National Crime
Victimization Survey Program,
including its purpose, history and what
is tells us about crime in the United
States today.

20. National Crime Victimization Survey2.2
1972 – Bureau of Justice Statistics began conducting the NCVS,
partially due to problems with the UCR.
Based on victim reports, not police reports, seeking to count all
crimes, including unreported
NCVS hierarchical counting system counts only the most
“serious” incident in a series of against the same victim.
Includes attempts
Detailed questions:
• Victim characteristics
• Extent of injury or loss
• Relationship to offender
• Was this crime reported?
Video (1:35)

21. Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
2.3
Compare and contrast the UCR and
the NCVS data collection and reporting
programs.

22. © 2014 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
2.3 Comparison of UCR/NIBRS and NCVS Data

23. 23
UCR/NIBRS and NCVS Issues2.3
UCR/NIBRS NCVS
The Belief That the Police
Can't Do Anything
Fear of Reprisal
Embarrassment/Fear About
the Crime Itself
False or Exaggerated
Reports – no attempt to
validate
Unintentional Inaccuracies
• Memory Problems
• Non-professional witness
Forgotten Crimes

24. Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
2.4
Describe how the special typologies
categories of crime discussed in this
chapter are significant today.
Crime Typology
– A classification of crimes along a particular dimension

25. Crimes Against Women
25
Aside from rape, men are more often crime victims, but
women are more often injured when they are victims, and
more often face certain crimes including: date rape,
incest, domestic abuse, stalking, prostitution and
exploitation.
Women tend to modify their lifestyles to avoid crime,
being careful about where/when they travel alone
2.4
Violence against Women Act (VAWA) 1994, 2000, 2005,
2013 – provides money to:
– Educate police, prosecutors, and judges about special
needs of female victims, e.g., Strangulation Study PDF
– Encourage pro-arrest policies for domestic abuse
– Provide specialized services for female victims
– Fund battered women’s shelters
– Support rape education
– Extend rape shield to civil cases, all criminal cases

26. Crimes Against the Elderly
26
• Criminal victimization seems to decline with age.
• In general, elderly crime victims are more likely than
younger victims to:
– Be victims of property crime
– Face offenders who are armed with guns
– Be victimized by strangers
– Be victimized in or near their homes during daylight
hours
– Report their victimization to the police
– Be physically injured
2.4

27. Hate Crime
27
Hate Crime – Crime motivated by offender’s bias against the
race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national
origin of his/her victim
• Most hate crimes consist of intimidation. They may also involve
vandalism, harassment, and physical violence.
• Sikh professor attacked in New York: video (11:53)
• Interesting critique of hate crimes: video (6:23)
• US soldier stands up for muslim clerk: video (1:59)
2.4

28. Corporate and White-Collar Crime
28
• Identification doctrine
– Corporations treated as separate legal entities
– Can be convicted of violations of criminal law
• Corporate crime
– A violation of criminal statute by a corporate entity or by its
executives, employees, or agents for the benefit of the
corporation
• White-Collar Crime
– Violations of criminal law committed by persons of
respectability in the course of their occupation
2.4

29. Organized Crime
29
Organized Crime – The unlawful activities of the members of a
highly organized, disciplined association engaged in supplying
illegal goods or services
2.4
Transnational
Organized Crime
Unlawful activity
undertaken and
supported by
organized criminal
groups operating
across national
boundaries

30. Gun Crime2.4
Guns are deeply ingrained in American culture.
The Second Amendment grants Americans the right to bear arms
1981 – James Brady wounded in an attempt on Pres. Reagan’s life
1994 – Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, established background
checks and mandated a 5-day waiting period to buy a handgun
1994 – Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act assault weapons ban
1996 – Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban prohibited those convicted of
misdemeanor domestic violence from owning or using firearms
2005 – Protection of Lawful Commerce in Firearms Act granted immunity to
gun makers and dealers for civil suits from shooting victims; also from product
liability suits for making dangerous items
2008 – DC v. Heller – US Supreme Court struck down DC ordinance requiring
disassembly and trigger locks, held self-defense falls within Second
Amendment right to bear arms
2010 – McDonald v. City of Chicago – US Supreme Court held right to bear
arms is a fundamental constitutional right

31. Drug Crime
31
• White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP)
estimates annual illicit drug sales in the United States of around
$65 billion
• Since 1975, US drug crimes have continued to increase, even
while violent crime and property crime rates were dropping.
• US drug arrests have exceeded the annual number of
arrests for any other crime, including DUI, and drug
convictions have accounted for a significant part of US prison
population increases
• Drug offenders often commit additional crimes. An early
RAND Corporation study found that most "violent predators" in
prison have extensive histories of heroin abuse, and more
recent studies have found that crack cocaine profoundly affects
violent crime.
2.4

32. High-Technology and Computer Crime
32
• Computer Crime
– Any crime perpetuated through the use of computer
technology
– Theft of services
– Communications in furtherance of criminal conspiracies
– Information piracy and forgery
– Dissemination of offensive materials
– Electronic money laundering
– Electronic vandalism and terrorism
– Telemarketing fraud
– Illegal interception of telecommunications
– Electronic funds transfer fraud
2.4

33. High-Technology and Computer Crime
33
• Computer Virus – Computer program designed
to secretly invade systems and may effectively
vandalize computers of all types and sizes
• Malware – Malicious computer programs such as
viruses, worms, and Trojan horses
• Spam – Unsolicited commercial bulk e-mail
whose primary purpose is the advertisement or
promotion of a commercial product or service
• Phishing – Seeking private information through
deceit
MGM v. Grokster (2005) – US Supreme Court held
that online file-sharing service liabile for facilitating
copyright violations
2.4

34. Types of Terrorism2.4
Domestic Terrorism
International
Terrorism
Cyber-
terrorism
34
A violent act or an act dangerous to
human life in violation of the criminal
laws of the US or of any state,
committed to intimidate or coerce a
government, the civilian population,
or any segment thereof in
furtherance of political or social
objectives
1. Domestic – within the US
2. International – transcends
national boundaries
3. Foreign – acts occurring outside
the US
Video: Terrorism is a Failed Brand (19:02)

35. © 2014 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
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2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Both the UCR/NIBRS and the NCVS contain only data that their creators
think appropriate.
The NCVS is based on victims’ self-reporting, shows that crimes of all
types are more prevalent than the UCR indicates.
The FBI’s UCR/NIBRS began in the 1930s and provides data on part I
and Part II offenses, as well as data on arrests.
Special categories of crime include crime against women, crime against
the elderly, hate crime, corporate/white-collar crime, organized crime,
gun crime, drug crime, high-technology/computer crime, and terrorism.
CHAPTER SUMMARY