University Required Courses Ungs 2030 Ungs 2040 Ungs 2050

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(UNGS 2040)
STANDARD CONTENTS
© Department of General Studies, 2008
ISLAM: KNOWLEDGE AND CIVILIZATION
Definition of Knowledge
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Al-‘ilm (العمن ) /Knowledge
Al-‘ilm (العلم ) 3
The arrival (Husul حصول: ) in the soul of the meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge and the arrival (wusul: )وصول of the soul at the meaning of a thing or object of knowledge  ”حصول هعىى أو صورة الشيء في الىفس ووصول
الىفس إلى هعىى الشيء“
(al-Jurjani:160-161)
….cont.,
4
Realization of the meanings of things (Al-Ghazzali)
Realization of something in its true nature through different levels of understanding and in agreement with the facts or true to nature. (textbook, 4)

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……cont.,
5
To know, to understand, to perceive, to be familiar and acquainted with things.
A firm belief that accords with the reality of things (فاعلم أنه لا إله إلا الله ) )47: 19(.
-Theology (عقيدة ),Principles of Jurisprudence( أصول الفقه ) etc.
Opposite of العلم
6
الظو : Conjecture
Uncertainty
Not supported with decisive proofs
It might accord with the reality and it
might not
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 الشك : doubt
 الجهل : ignorance
 السفة : foolishness
 الضلال : misguidance
….cont.,
Degrees of Certainty
8
العمن :knowledge
•Certainty, conviction ( اهل /ًٖاهلظع )
•Accords with the reality
•Certainty by observation عي اىيقيِ
•certainty through knowledge عي اىيقِ
•Certainty through experience حق اىيقيِ

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Importance of Knowledge
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1. Knowledge is a requirement for the fulfillment of man‟s obligations as a khalifahon earth. Allah says:
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 ْ ٍَِ بَهيِف ُ وَعْ جَجَأ اىُىبَق ًةَفيِيَ خ رْضِوَإِذْ قَبهَ رَبُّلَ ىِيْ لََََئِنَةِ إِ يِّّ جَبعِوٌ فِي الَْْ
يُفْسِدُ فِيهَب وَيَسْفِلُ اىدِّ بٍَءَ وَ حَّْ سَُّبِّحُ بِحَ دَِْكَ وَ قَُّدِّسُ ىَلَ قَبهَ إِ يِّّ أَعْيَ بٍَ
لََ جَعْيَ ىَُ ) 30 ( وَعَيَّ آَدَ الَْْسْ بََءَ مُيَّهَب ثُ عَرَضَهُ عَيَى اىْ لََََئِنَةِ فَقَبهَ
أَ بِّْئُى يِّ بِأَسْ بََءِ هَؤُلََءِ إِ مُ حُْْ صَبدِقِي ) 31 ( قَبىُىا سُبْحَب لََّ لََ عِيْ ىَ بَْ إِلََّ
بٍَ عَيَّ حََْ بَْ إِ لََّّ أَ ثَّْ اىْعَيِي اىْحَنِي ) 32 ( قَبهَ يَب آَدَ أَ بِّْئْهُ بِأَسْ بََئِهِ فَيَ بََّ
أَ بَّْأَهُ بِأَسْ بََئِهِ قَبهَ أَىَ أَقُوْ ىَنُ إِ يِّّ أَعْيَ غَيْبَ اىسَّ بََوَاتِ وَالَْْرْضِ وَأَعْيَ بٍَ جُبْدُو وَ بٍَ مُ حُْْ جَنْحُ ىَُ ) 33 )
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2. The first revelation to the Messenger of Allah is about seeking knowledge and revealing scientific knowledge:
”ؤكرؤ تبشى رَبِّلَ اهذىخوق *خوق الا شٌب ي عوق *اكرا رّتم
الانرى *اهذ عوى تبهلوى *عوى الا شٌب يب هى عٖوى“ )اهعوق: 1 -
5 )
……Cont., 12
Read! In the name of the Lord and Cherisher, who created-created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is most Bountiful-He who taught the use of the pen, taught man that which he knew not‛ (96:1-5)
[‚read, teach , pen‛]

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……cont., 13
3. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge.
4. The text of the Qur’an is full of verses inviting man to use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to learn.
5.The total number of verses in which ‘ilmor its derivatives and associated words are used is 704.
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6.The main miracle and sign of authenticity of prophethood of Mohammed (صو الله عو شّوى ) was a book of knowledge; The Qur’an.
……cont., ……cont.,
15
7.The Prophet (صو الله عو شّوى )made seeking knowledge obligatory on Muslims (men and women):
”ظوة اهعوى فر طٖج عو نل يشوى“
‚Seeking knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim‛.
……cont., 16
8. Knowledge is the way through which people can recognize Allah, fear him, and discover the truth.
”هَنِ اهرَّاشِخُ فِ اهْعِوْىِ يِ ىٌُِِْ اَّهْيُئْيِ ئُْٖيِ تِيَب ؤُ زٌِْلَ
اِهَ مَِٖ يََّب ؤُ زٌِْلَ يِ كَتِوِمَ“ )اه شٌبء: 162 )
‚But those among them who are well-grounded in knowledge, and the believers, believe in what has been revealed to you and what was revealed before you…‛

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” رَََّٖ اهَّذِ ؤُ خُّ اّ اهْعِوْىَ اهَّذِ ؤُ زٌِْلَ اِهَ مَِٖ يِ رَتِّمَ اهْحَقَّ دََِِِّٖ اِهَ صِرَاظِ اهْعَزِ زِٖ اهْحَيِ دِٖ“ )شتإ :6(
‚And those who are knowledgeable see that the revelation sent down to you from the Lord is the Truth, and that it guides to the Path of Allah who is Exalted and Worthy of all praise.‛
……cont.,
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9. Knowledge elevates the status and position of its bearer and makes difference between him and ignorant.
” رَِٖفَعِ اهوَّ اهَّذِ ءَايَ اٌُّ يِ نٌُْىِ اَّهَّذِ ؤُ خُّ اّ اهْعِوْىَ دَرَجَبحٍ“
)اهيجبدهج: 11 )
‚Allah will raise up, to high ranks those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge…‛
……cont., 19
” هََّلَدِ ءَاخَ بٌَِٖ دَا دَُّ شَُّوَ يَِٖب عِوْيّب كََّبلا اهْحَيِدُ هِوَّ اهَّذِ فَطَّوَ بٌَ عَوَ نَذِ رٍٖ يِ عِتَبدِ اهْيُئْيِ “ًٌَِٖ ): 15 اه يٌل(
We gave knowledge to David and Solomon: and they both said: "Praise be to Allah, Who has favoured us above many of His subjects whobelieve!"
……cont.,
20
” هََّلَدِ ءَاخَ بٌَِٖ دَا دَُّ يِ بٌَّ فَطِوًب بَٖجِتَبلُ ؤَ تِِّّ يَعَ اَّهظَّ رَِٖ ؤََّهَ بٌَّ هَ اهْحَدِ دَٖ) 10 ( ؤَ اعِيَلْ شَبتِغَبحٍ كََّدِّرِ فِ اهشَّرِدِ اَّعِيَوُ اّ صَبهِحّب
اِ تِيَب خَعِيَوُ تَصِ رْٖ) 11 (“ )شتإء(
‚We bestowed grace on David … and We made the iron soft for him. Make coats of mail, balance well the rings of chain armour, and work righteousness; for be sure I see all that you do."
……cont.,

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”كل لُ شٖخ اهذ عٖوي اّهذ لا عٖوي “ًّ )اهزير: 9
)
‚ Say: ‚are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?‛
……cont.,
Purpose of knowledge
Divinely
WorldlyTo recognize GodTo benefit man
Pleasure of God
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Classification of Knowledge
Week Two
24
Limitations
(a) Absolute (perfect) knowledge:
this is the knowledge of God who knows the reality, essence and details of all things.
(b) Limited knowledge:
The knowledge given to His creations;

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angels,
prophets,
human beings,
jinn,
and animals.
……cont.,…..cont., 26
“Limited knowledge:
(i) Gifted knowledge:
a. Instinctive knowledge (natural): it is imparted in the very nature of the creation.
b. Revealed/Sacred knowledge: the knowledge that Almighty God reveals to human beings.
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(ii) Acquired Knowledge
Gained through effort by way of reflection, senses and experience.
(a) Recommended(praiseworthy)
i-Fard ‘aynii. Fard kifayah
(b) Prohibited(blameworthy)
-Magic (kindly refer to slides 46-48)
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General Classification of Knowledge in Islam

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29General classification of Knowledge in IslamLimited Knowledge
Acquired Knowledge
Gifted Knowledge
Absolute Knowledge
Instinct (ilham)
SacredPraiseworthy
Blame worthy
By external
influenceBy itself
Fard „Ain
Fard Kifayah30
Al-Ghazzali’sCriteria for
Classification of sciences:
1. Theoretical and practical
2. Presential and acquired
3. Religious and intellectual
4. Individual obligatory and communal obligatoryClassification of Knowledge
According to al-Ghazali
Theoretical
Practical
31Intellectual
Fard kifayah(Collective
Obligatory Knowledge)
Attained
Presential
Religious
Fard ‘ayn (Personal
Obligatory Knowledge) Al-Ghazzali’sCriteria for Classification of sciences
32
1. Theoretical and practical(philosophers)
Theoretical: to know the states of beings as they are( to realize/ comprehend the reality of beings; celestial & terrestrial)
Practical: deals with man’s actions
To find out what is useful to mankind in this life as well as in the Hereafter

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….Cont.,
33
2. Presential & acquired (tasawwuf) (the mode of knowing)
Presential: intuitive, contemplative
spiritual experience -revelation
Acquired: empirical, rational, logical
….Cont.,
34
Which one is better?
Al-Ghazzali:
the presential is superior to the acquired, It is free from errors & doubt, certainty on spiritual truths
This is true with the revelationand intuition received by the prophets
35
The intuitive knowledge claimed by people other than prophets may not be taken for granted unless it is judged in light of the established principles of Islam
….Cont., 36
3. Religious and intellectual (the source)
Religious (transmitted sciences):
Acquired from revelation/ prophets
1. Roots (Qur’an, sunnah, consensus)
2. Branches (law and ethics)
3. Ancillary sciences (grammar and lexicography)
4. Complementary sciences (Qira’at, commentary, history)
Intellectual: attained by human intellect alone

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….Cont.,
37
4. Fard ‘Ayn and Fard kifayah(the need for learning)
Fard ‘ayn:
What should be learned by each and every Muslim.
Individual responsibilities
Things which can’t be done on behalf of others
38
Beliefs, worship, halal and haram, core moral values, how to discharge one’s responsibilities towards others (man’s obligations to family and society), necessary skills for daily life.
….Cont., ….Cont.,
39
Fard kifayah:
-the community’s needs that can be performed by a sufficient group on behalf of others.
-collective responsibilities
Religious sciences: knowledge that is not needed for daily practice of Islam.
Intellectual knowledge: all types of knowledge needed for the welfare of the society in this life
….Cont40
Praiseworthy sciences:
Enhances human well being and the environment within the boundaries outlined by shari’ah
All sciences which are useful, beneficial and satisfy the requirements of science.

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41
Blameworthy sciences:
A science which does not meet the requirement of science, or it is purely or usually harmful.
Blameworthy by its nature by an external factor….Cont…
42
Magic:
It is defined as “seeking the help of demons to perform something harmful against somebody” or “showing something to an audience, which is contrary to reality.
Reasons why magic is prohibited in Islam:
1) It is an act of blasphemy (kufr). Allah says in the Holy Qur‟an:
43
“AndwhentherecametothemaMessengerfromAllahconfirmingwhatwaswiththem,apartyofthosewhoweregiventhescripturethrewawaythebookofAllahbehindtheirbacksasiftheydidnotknow.AndtheyfollowedwhatthedevilsgaveoutfalselyofmagicofthereignofSolomon;forSolomondidnotdisbelievebutthedevilsdisbelieved, teachingmenmagicandsuchthingsthatcamedownatBabylontothetwoangelsHarutandMarut,butneitherofthesetwo(angles)taughtanyone(such
44
things) until they had said: we are only for trial, so don't disbelieve. And from them (magicians) people learn that through which they would cause separation between a person and his spouse, but they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah's leave; and they learn that which harms them rather than profits them. And indeed they knew that its practitioner would have no share in the Hereafter. And how bad indeed was that for which they sold their own selves if they but knew.” (2:101-102).

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2) According to the following authentic hadith, magic is a deadly act:
The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Avoid the seven deadly acts which are: ascribing partners to God, magic, killing the human self which Allah prohibited except with right, eating usury (riba), devouring the orphan‟s wealth, defecting from the battle-field (without a justified reason) and slandering chaste, unwary believing women.” 46
Magic being harmful and evil act, Allah has told us to seek His protection against it:
“Say I seek refuge in the in the Lord of daybreak From the evil of that which he created; From the evil of the darkness when it is intense, and from the evil of malignant witchcraft, And from the evil of the envious when he envies.” (Surah al-Falaq)
Differences between magic and miracles (mu„jizat) 47
Magic is from devils (see the above Qur‟anic verse: 2:101-102)while miracles are from Allah.
On the other hand, miracles are real while magic is deceptive; it is covering the truth with falsehood).
Because miracles are from Allah, they could only be performed by Prophets while magic, which is from devils, can be performed by anyone who associates himself with the devil.
48
Horoscope
Not only magic is prohibited in Islam but also horoscope or reading one‟s palm to foretell the future.
The Holy Qur‟an affirms that no one knows the future or the unseen except Allah: “He knoweth the Unseen as well as that which is Open.” (6:73) “With Him are the keys of the Unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but He...” (6:59)

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The Holy Qur‟an also asserts that not even Muhammad knows the unseen:
“If I had the knowledge of the unseen, I should have secured abundance for myself, and no evil would have touched me.” (7:188). 50
The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Whoever goes to a fortune teller (a soothe sayer) or a diviner and believes him, has, in fact, disbelieved in what has been revealed to Muhammad.”
….Cont.. 51
Example: Horoscope
Capricorn: (Dec 23 -Jan 20)
Today’s stars encourage you to be more diplomatic and inclusive in your relations with others
Aquarius: (Jan 21 ”Feb 19)
On the Zodiac’s Day of Metamorphosis, you need to transform ideals into reality, and turn dreams into concrete plans. If you work patiently towards your goals, you can achieve the long- term success you are looking for. …Cont.,
52
Astrology:
It is the study of the positions and aspects of celestial bodies.
Muslims scholars agree that astrology is a prohibited field to deal with. For example, Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: “Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by Almighty Allah‟s Book, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars.

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Ibn `Uthaymeen, said: “Astrology is a kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is forbidden because it is based on illusions, not on concrete facts. There is no relation between the movements of celestial bodies and what takes place on the Earth.” 54
During the Prophet‟s lifetime, it happened that the sun eclipsed on the same day when the Prophet‟s son Ibrahim died. The people then thought that it had eclipsed because of the Prophet‟s son‟s death. On knowing this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) led them in the Eclipse Prayer and then delivered them a speech saying: “The sun and moon are but signs of Allah; they do not eclipse because so-and-so died or was born.” 55
The above hadith indicates that the Prophet (s.a.w) denied all relation between the movements of the heavenly bodies and events on the Earth.
56
Ibn „Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him and his father) reported that Allah‟s Messenger (s.a.w) said: “He who has acquired some knowledge of astrology has acquired some knowledge of sorcery; the more he acquires of the former the more he acquires of the latter.” (Reported by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah)

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Commenting on the above hadith, al- Shawkani said that the Prophet (s.a.w) compared between astrology and sorcery because sorcery was known to be forbidden; and so, he who would get some knowledge of astrology would do something forbidden and would be sinful. 58
To sum up, astrology is based on lies and deceit; it has no scientific basis. The astrologists‟ usage of computers to convince people that what they do is technological and scientific is nothing but deceit. There is no scientific proof that there is a relationship between the appearance of a star in a specific time and the character and behavior of someone born at that time.
Conclusion59
Sciences are inter-related, and none of them can exclude the others.
Humanities, natural sciences, and the religious sciences unite to produce true understanding of this world and the causes behind its existence.
Religious scholars are in need of philosophical and natural sciences as much as scientists are in need of the religious sciences. 60
Natural and philosophical sciences are to enable the Muslim to explore, exploit and get a better insight into what Allah has created in this universe.
Religious sciences are to guide people to understand the reality of this life, their origins and their mission.
And to set the moral and legal guidelines that should be observed by human beings for a meaningful and better life.

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Sources and Means of Knowledge
Week Three
62
1. Revelation ( اه حّ :ٕ اهلرآ اّهش جٌ )
2. Reason (اهعلل )
3. Nature/ physical world اهظتع جٖ( )
4. Five Senses (اهح اّس اهخيشج )
5. Intuition (الإه بِى )
The Qur’an as a Source of Knowledge63
An introduction to the the Qur’an
Definition
Qur’anis the Book revealed from Allah to His Messenger Muhammad (saw) as written in masahifand transmitted to us from him through an authentic continuous narration
64
Definition analysis:
-Qur’anis the pure speech of Allah (al- Nisa’:42)
-Only the Allah’s speech revealed to Muhammad
-It is an exposition of all things (tibyanli kulli shay’)
-As guidance and mercy
-Nothing is neglected (al-Nahl:89)

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The Qur’anis the Arabic words as well as their meanings (translation is not a Qur’an)
Transmitted to us by way of جىاجر
[tawatur] (continuous narration by a large number of people in each part of the chain of narration) 66
Revelation&RecordingoftheQur’an
a)RevelationoftheQur’an
TheQur’anwastransmitteddirectlyfromAllah(swt)totheMessengerofAllahthroughGibril(notamereinspiration)
TheQur’anwasnotrevealedtotheMessengerofAllahallatonce.
ItwasrevealedtohiminstagesandsometimesinaccordancewithincidentsfacedbyMuslimcommunity.
67
Thewisdombehindrevealingitbystages
1.Toallowpeopletomemorize, understandandimplementitgradually.
” كَُّرِءَا بًٌ فَرَكْ بٌَ هِخَلْرَؤَ عَوَ اه بٌَّسِ عَوَ يُنْدٍ زٌَََّّهْ بٌَ خَ زٌِْ لٖا“ )الإشراء: 106(
ItisaQur’anwhichwehavedividedintopartsfromtimetotimeinorderthatyoumightreciteittomenatintervals…
(17:106)
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2.TostrengthentheheartoftheMessengerofAllah(saw),givehimcourageandmoralsupporttoovercomethedifficultiesandchallengeshewasfacing.Allahsaid:
” كََّبلَ اهَّذِ نَفَرُ اّ هَ لِّا زٌُِّلَ عَوَ اهْلُرِءَا جُيِوَجً اَّحِدَثً نَذَهِمَ
هِ ذٌَُتِّحَ تِ فُئَادَمَ رََّخَّوْ بٌَ خَرِخِ وًٖب“ )اهفركب :ً 32 )

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Those who reject faith say: "Why is not the Qur’anrevealed to him all at once? It is revealed in stages so that We may strengthenyour heart thereby, and We have rehearsed it to you in slow, well-arranged stages, gradually. (25: 32)
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3.Liveinteractionbetweenthedivinetextandthesocio-politicalrealityanddailypracticeofthepeople.
Someversescametodealwith:
somesituationsfacedbytheMessengerofAllah;
solveproblemsfacedbyMuslimcommunity;
respondtothechallengesputbydisbelievers;
correctthemistakescommittedbytheMuslimcommunity,etc. 71
Those incidents, cases, and questions are called occasions for revelation ( أ لّزٌها ةبتش ) and they help those who came laterin a better understanding and implementation of those verses.
The period of revelation lasted for around 23 years. 72
The Recording of the Qur’an
The Messenger of Allah used to memorize the verses revealed to him then recite them for his companions who used to memorize them
Therewerescribeswhousedtorecordtheversesaftertheirrevelation

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TheoriginalcopiesofthewrittenrecordswerepreservedinthehouseoftheMessengerofAllah.
Whilesomeotherscribeswouldrecordtheversesforthemselvesandpreservethemfortheirownuse.
74
TheorderoftheverseswithineachsurahaswellastheorderofthesurahswasdirectedbyJibril.
DuringeachmonthofRamadanJibrilusedtorecitewhatwasrevealedinitsorderwiththeMessengerofAllah.
DuringthetimeofAbuBakrtheQur’anwascompiledinasingleofficialcopy.
ThesuggestioncameafterthebattleofYamamah. 75
The Qur’anand the other Revealed Books
Universality:
ThepreviousBookswerelocalforspecificpeople.
Qur’anasthelastrevealedBookandauniversalmessageforallmankindneedstobecomprehensiveandeternallypreserved.
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” ؤََّ زٌَْهْ بٌَ اِهَ مَِٖ اهْنِخَبةَ تِبهْحَقِّ يُصَدِّكًب هِيَب تَ دََٖ يِ اهْنِخَبةِ
يَُّ يَِِِٖ بًٌ عَوَ فَبحِنُىِ تَ ىٌَُِِِٖ تِيَب ؤَ زٌَْلَ اهوَّ “َُ )اهيبئدث: 48 )
ToyouwesenttheScriptureintruth,confirmingthescripturethatcamebeforeit,andawatcheroverit.So,judgebetweenthembywhatAllahhasrevealed…‛

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2. The way of preservation
ThepeopleofeachBookwereentrustedwithguardingitagainstanydistortionormanipulation
”اِ بٌَّ ؤَ زٌَْهْ بٌَ اهخَّ رَِّاثَ فِ بَِٖ دُُّ رٌَُّّْ حَِٖنُىُ تِ بَِ اه تٌَِّ اهَّذِ ؤَشِوَيُ اّ
هِوَّذِ بَُدُ اّ اَّهرَّتَّب اَّهْإَحِتَبرُ تِيَب اشِخُحِفِعُ اّ يِ نِخَبةِ اهوَّ نََّب اٌُّ عَوَ شُ دََِاءَ...“ )اهيبئدث: 44 )
78
‚It was We who revealed the Torah; therein was guidance and light. By its standard have been judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed to Allah's will, by the rabbis and the priests; for to them was entrusted the protection of Allah's Book, and they were witnesses thereto…‛ (5: 44) 79
Iftheyfailtodoso,Allahsendsanotherprophettotakepeoplebacktotherightway.
SinceMuhammad(saw)wasthelastMessenger, Allah(swt)assumedtheresponsibilityofguardingandpreservingHislastBook.
”اِ بٌَّ حٌَِ زٌََّهْ بٌَ اهذِّنْرَ اَِّ بٌَّ هَ هَحَبفِعُ ”ًَّ)اهحجر: 9 )
Wehave,withoutdoubt,sentdowntheMessage; andWewillassuredlyguarditagainstanymanipulationorchange. 80
Preservation of the Qur’an
ThewayQur’anwaspreserved:
TheQur’anwasmadepublicfromtheverybeginning.
TheQur’anwasfullyrecordedfromthetimeitwasrevealed.
TheQur’anwaspreservedintheoriginalform(samelanguage,samewords).
TheassurancefromGodthattheQur’anwillbepreservedtilltheDayofJudgment.

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” اّ هنخبة عز زٖ، لا إٖخ اهتبظل ي ت دٖ لّا ي خوف ،َ
خ زٌ لٖ ي حن ىٖ حي دٖ“ )فصوح: 41 - 42 )
AndindeeditisaBookofexaltedpower.Falsehoodcannotcomeatitfrombeforeitorfrombehindit.(Itis)arevelationfromtheWise,theOwnerofPraise.
82
NoonecanalterorchangeanypartoftheQur’an;noteventheMessengerofAllahhimself.
”خَ زٌِْ لٌٖ يِ رَةِّ اهْعَبهَيِ ) 43 ( هََّ خَلَ لََّّ عَوَ بٌَِٖ تَعِضَ الأَكَب لِِّٖ
( 44 ( لأَخَذْ بٌَ يِ تِبهْ يَِٖ ) 45 ( ذُىَّ هَلَظَعِ بٌَ يِ اهْ خَِّ ) 46 )
فَيَب يِ نٌُْىِ يِ ؤَحَدٍ عَ حَبجِزِ “ًَٖ )اهحبكج: 47 .)
ThisisaMessagesentdownfromtheLordoftheworlds.AndiftheMessengerweretoinventanysayingsinourname,weshouldcertainlyseizehimbyhisrighthand,andweshouldcertainlythencutoffthearteryofhisheart:Norcouldanyofyouprotecthimfromthat. 83
The Characteristics of the Qur’an
1-Guidance for and mercy to believers
”ذَهِمَ اهْنِخَبةُ لا رَ ةَِٖ فِ دُُّ هِوْيُخَّلِ “ًَٖ )اهتلرث: 2 )
This is the book; in it is guidance, sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah. 84
” هََّلَدِ جِئْ بٌَ ىُُِ تِنِخَبةٍ فَصَّوْ بٌَ عَوَ عِوْىٍ دُُّ رََّحِيَجً هِلَ ىٍِّ
ئُْٖيِ “ًٌَُّ )الأعراف: 52 )
For We had certainly sent unto them a Book, based on knowledge, which We explained in detail, a guideand a mercyto all who believe.

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2. Spiritual/ social healer
” بَٖؤَ بَُِّٖ اه بٌَّسُ كَدِ جَبءَخْنُىِ يَ عِِّعَجٌ يِ رَتِّنُىِ شَِّفَبءْ هِيَب فِ اهصُّدُ رِّ
دَُُّّ رََّحِيَجٌ هِوْيُئْيِ “ًٌَِٖ ) سٌّٖ: 57 )
Omankind!therehascometoyouadirectionfromyourLordandahealingforthe(diseases)inyourhearts,andforthosewhobelieve,aGuidanceandaMercy. 86
3-Light
”فَبهَّذِ ءَايَ اٌُّ تِ عََّزَّرُ صٌَََّرُ اَّخَّتَعُ اّ اه رٌَُّّ اهَّذِ ؤُ زٌِْلَ يَعَ ؤُ هَّئِمَ ىُُُ اهْيُفْوِحُ “ًَّ )الأعراف: 157 )
Soitisthosewhobelieveinhim(theMessenger),honourhim,helphim,andfollowtheLightwhichissentdownwithhim,itistheywhowillprosper. 87
“فَأيِ اٌُّ تِبهوَّ رََّشُ هِّ اَّه رٌُِّّ اهَّذِ ؤَ زٌَْهْ بٌَ ‘ اَّهوَّ تِيَب خَعِيَوُ خَتِ رْٖ"
)اهخغبت :ً 8 )
Believe,therefore, in Allah and His Messenger, and in the Light which We have sent down. And Allah is well acquainted with all that you do.
88
4-Preacher for believers
” ذََُا تَ بَٖ هِو بٌَّسِ دَُُّّ يََّ عِِّعَجٌ هِوْيُخَّلِ “ًَٖ )آل عيرا :ً 138 )
Here is a plain statement to men, a guidance and instruction to those who fear Allah!

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5-Revealing reality and clarifying doubts
“ظس خِوْمَ ءَا بَٖحُ اهْلُرِءَا نَِّخَبةٍ يُتِ “ًٍٖ )اه يٌل: 1 )
Ta. Sin. These are verses of the Qur’an, a Book that makes things clear. 90
” بَٖ ؤَ لَُِ اهْنِخَبةِ كَدِ جَبءَنُىِ رَشُ هُّ بٌَ تَُٖ هَنُىِ نَذِ رّٖا يِيَّب نُ خٌُْىِ خُخْفُ يِ اهْنِخَبةِ عََِّٖفُ عَ نَذِ رٍٖ كَدِ جَبءَنُىِ يِ اهوَّ رٌُّْ نَِّخَبةْ يُتِ “ًْٖ
)اهيبئدث: 15 )
OPeopleoftheBook!therehascometoyouOurMessenger,revealingtoyoumuchthatyouusedtohideintheBook,andpassingovermuch(thatisnowunnecessary):TherehascometoyoufromAllaha(new)lightandaperspicuousBook. 91
6-Miraculous
The Qur’an is the main miracle of the Messenger of Allah and the main proof of the authenticity of his prophethood.
The miracles contained in it are the proof of its authenticity as the real Book of Allah92
Its miracle is in terms of:
i. Structure
ii. Meaning(the knowledge contained in it: historical events, prediction of what will happen in the future, and scientific facts.

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Challenging the Unbelievers
The miracle is manifested in a challenge to all mankind to produce:
a. Another book similar to it:
”ؤَىِ لَُٖ هُّ خَلَ هََّّ تَل لا ئُْٖيِ )ًٌَُّ 33 ( فَوْ إَْٖخُ اّ تِحَدِ دٍٖ يِذْوِ اِ نَب اٌُّ صَبدِكِ ) 34 (“ اهظ رّ.
Or they say: He has invented it? Nay, but they do not believe! Then let them produce a speech like it, if they are truthful.
94
b. Ten chapters similar to those of the Qur’an
”ؤَىِ لَُٖ هُّ افْخَرَا كُلْ فَإْخُ اّ تِعَشْرِ شُ رٍَّ يِذْوِ يُفْخَرَ بَٖحٍ اَّدِعُ اّ
يَ اشِخَظَعِخُىِ يِ دُ اهوَّ اِ نُ خٌُىِ صَبدِكِ ) 13 ( ”) دُّ(.
Or they say: He has invented it! Say: Then bring ten surahs, the like thereof, invented, and call on everyone you can beside Allah, if you are truthful! 95
c. One surahsimilar to those of the Qur’an
” اَِّ نُ خٌُىِ فِ رَ ةٍِٖ يِيَّب زٌََّهْ بٌَ عَوَ عَتِدِ بٌَ فَإْخُ اّ تِشُ رَّثٍ يِ يِذْوِ اَّدِعُ اّ شُ دََِاءَنُىِ يِ دُ اهوَّ اِ نُ خٌُىِ صَبدِكِ )ًَٖ 23 (“ اهتلرث.
And if you are in doubt concerning that which We reveal to our Messenger (Muhammad), then produce a surahlike one thereof, and call your gods and supporters beside Allah if you are truthful. 96
Types of Knowledge in the Qur’an
The Universal Book
Islam is the last and universal religion;
Human societies are always open for evolution and development.
The Qur’an should: Meet the needs of all human beings in different places and different times.

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To be able to do so, it should:
Give clear and detailed discourse on what is important for human life and can’t be known through human reasoning only (beliefs and ‘ibadat)
Set the core values and principles which guide human life to the right way, and safeguard it against any corruption or deviation from such a way.
Be flexible to accommodate the evolution and development of human life and societies. 98
Regarding human life’s aspects which are subject to change and development, the Qur’an , generally, sets norms, standards and universal values which suit all peoples and all times.
These values and norms should not be subject to any alteration or change to ensure the prevalence of righteousness and justice (immutable values and norms). 99
In light of these norms, people are given freedom to innovate and adopt whatever systems, procedures, etc they may consider as good for them as long as they don’t breach those norms and values.
100
Physical and Natural Sciences
The Qur’an deals with those things which are needed to be known and may not be realized by man or may not be understood accurately (man would speculate about themonly)
Such as:
-The origin of mankind, the substance and the way of his first creation, his first acquisition of the basic knowledge.

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-The origin of the earth and the heavens
In other fields such as:
-astronomy
-Geology,
-Physics,
-Embryology
The Qur’an just gives some references for the following purposes: 102
The aims of scientific references in the Qur’an
It is not to give people details and teach them natural and physical sciences.
They are signs to prove:
-The existence of God
-The omnipotence and power of God
-The weakness of men compared to the power of the Creator103
-Indebtedness of mankind to Allah for all what we have in life.
-The authenticity of Prophets and revealed Books i.e. this Qur’an comes from Allah and it is impossible for a human being, especially at the time of Muhammad (صو الله عو شّوى ).to compose it.
Cont., 104
For the Muslim who reads and understands these references, they serve to strengthen his or her faith.
”اهَّذِ ذَْٖنُرُ اهوَّ كِ بَٖيّب كَُّعُ دّّا عََّوَ جُ تٌُِّ ىِِِ خَََّٖفَنَّرُ فِ خَوْقِ اهشَّيَ اَّحِ اَّلأَرِضِ رَتَّ بٌَ يَب خَوَلْحَ ذََُا تَبظِلاً شُتِحَب مٌََ فَلِ بٌَ
عَذَاةَ اه بٌَّرِ“)آل الأعيرا :ً 191 .)

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Those who remember and praise Allah, standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and contemplatethe wonders of creation in the heavens and the earth, (with the thought): "Our Lord! not for naught haveyou created all this! Glory to you! Give us salvation from the Penalty of the Fire. (3: 191)
106
For the non-Muslim who questions the authenticity or authorship of the Qur’an , these references provide some interesting answers.
”شَ رٌُِ ىِِِٖ ءَا بَٖخِ بٌَ فِ ا فَٗبقِ فَِّ ؤَ فٌُْشِ ىِِِ حَخَّ خََٖتَ هَ ىُِِ ؤَ اهْحَقُّ ؤَ هََّىِ نَْٖفِ تِرَتِّمَ ؤَ عَوَ نُلِّ شَ ءٍِٕ شَ دِِْٖ“ )فصوح:
53 )
107
Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (farthest) horizons, and within themselves, until it becomes manifest to them that it is the Truth. Is it not enough that your Lord does witness all things? [41:53] 108
How should we deal with these scientific facts?
They should be used for the aforesaid things.
They can be used to have a better understanding of those verses dealing with natural phenomena compared to the way they were understood by early Muslims.

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We should not over-emphasize the scientific miracles to the extent that we hurry to relate each new scientific theory to the verses of the Qur’an .
Such an act may lead to misinterpreting the texts of the Qur’an and changing the interpretation from time to time. This may be counterproductive and cause some confusion especially among non-Muslims. 110
b) Religious, human and social sciencesBelief: (Revelation is the only source)
The Concept of God
The existence of God; the Creator and Lord of this universe.
The concept of tawhid(Unity of God)
Since the concept of God was not new to mankind, the Qur’an focuses on correcting the prevalent concepts of God and demonstrating the Unity of God, His omnipotence and knowledge, etc. 111
The Concept of Prophethood
God used to send a prophet to every people
A brief history of prophets (some names mentioned)
Revelation
Some revealed books: Suhuf/ Ibrahim, Zabur/ Dawud, Torah /Musa, Injil/ Gospel/ Esa
Angels
Their nature, character, position and relation with God (not his sons or daughters)
112
Day of Judgment
Its existence, what will happen on that day, Jannah, Jahannam
No specific date is given for its happening
‘Ibadat(worship)
Revelation the only source.
The Qur’an sets the basics of ‘ibadat and the Prophet gives details

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113
Morality
Revelation the main source
The Qur’an sets universal ethical norms and values
Obedience and submission to God, justice, benevolence, kindness, generosity, brotherhood, honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, trust (amanah), forbearance, patience, tolerance and forgiveness, inviting/encouraging people to do good, and preventing/ discouraging them from doing bad (munkar) 114
Human and social relations
Revelation is the main source
The Qur’an deals with the main principles of these relations:
Relationship among family members
-between husbands and wives
-between parents and children
-marriage, divorce, inheritance
Relations with relatives115
Relations with neighbours
Social relations and interaction
Relations between genders
Etiquettes and manners
Relations with non-Muslims
Relations with animals
Halal & haram:
(Revelation is the only source)
Food, drinks, clothes 116
Law:
-Family law
-Criminal law
-Procedural law
-Commercial law
-International law

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Economic system
(Revelation provides guidance to attain and maintain justice)
Islam sets some norms and principles along with some restrictions to ensure the observance of those norms and principles (prohibition of riba, uncertain contracts, etc.)
118
Zakatis imposed to secure the minimum economic and social justice,
Rich people are exhorted to spend and promised to be rewarded for that.
Social welfare (59: 7)
119
Political system
The Qur’an sets norms and principles
The establishment of a government/ central authority and the duties of subjects to obey its commands120
The governance should be based on consultation (ش رّْ )and the right of people to select their leaders.
The format of )ش رّ (ْ and government are left to the choice of people and are open for development.

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History and Civilization
The origin of this universe
The Qur’an states that this universe was created by Allah, and gives short description of that creation
The origin of mankind
-The Qur’an states that the first man (Adam) was created by God from dust/ clay (15: 26), (15: 28-29), (17: 61), (23: 12), (32: 7), (32: 9), 38: 71-72)
-Eve was created for Adam (4: 1), (7: 189), (39: 6) 122
-Adam was taught the basic knowledge by God (2: 30-33)
-When Adam and his wife, mistakenly, disobeyed the commands of God, they were sent down from Jannah(Paradise) to the earth where they and their children settled. 123
History of Messengers of Allah
-The Qur’an gives a brief account of the history of the most significant Messengers.
-The Qur’an does not focus on the details of that history, instead it focuses on the lessons that should be learned from those events.
124
-The Qur’an pays enough attention to civilizational studies by examining the patterns of rise and fall of civilizations.
-The Qur’an wants Muslims to learn from human experience.
-The aim of this is to guide Muslims how to buildtheir civilization and guardit against social diseases that may lead to its fall and collapse.

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125
How should we deal with the Qur’an?
Qur’an is an authoritative text that should be followed and implemented by all Muslims.
Those texts which are clear and self- explanatory should be implemented without any further examination.
Those texts which are open for interpretation and may impart more than one meaning can be examined and construed based on the following principles: 126
Grouping of similar texts/ statements which talk on one topic/category
Analysis and understanding of each text/ statement in its components and context
Identification of the rules which unify the various categories
Identification of the general rules and purposes which govern the interaction/ interrelation of various categories. The Sunnah as a Source of Knowledge127128
Literal Meaning:
Sunnah ش جٌ( )means a clear path, an established course of conduct, the pattern of life, a precedent and custom.
The word sunnahand its plural sunanhave been used in the Qur’an sixteen times. In all these instances, sunnahhas been used to imply an established practice or course of conduct.

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It may be a good example or a bad one, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community.
”ي ش ش جٌ حش جٌ فو ؤجر بُ ؤّجر ي عيل ت بِ اه ىّٖ
اهل بٖيج يّ ش ش جٌ ش ئٖج فو زّر بُ زّّر ي عيل ت بِ اه ىّٖ اهل بٖيج“
130
‚Whosoever originates in Islam any good way/ precedent (good sunnah) has its reward and the reward of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment. Andwhosoever originates in Islam a bad way/ precedent (bad sunnah) bears its burden and the burden of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment‛
131
The opposite of sunnahis bid`ah(innovation), which is characterized by lack of precedent and continuity with the past.
Technical meaning:
a.The acts, sayings and approvals of the Messenger of Allah. 132
Kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels of the ahkam
1. Sunnah which is intended to be a binding law:
This kind includes the sayings, acts and approval of the Prophet (saw) through which he intended the laying down of the law or the explanation of the ahkam(law) laid down by the Qur’an . This comprises the largest part of the sunnah.

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2-Sunnah which is specific to the Prophet( ٓوص
الله عو شّوى )
This kind includes those acts which are specific to the Prophet (صو الله عو شّوى ). The number of these acts is very limited. One example is the number of his marriages, marriage without dowry, not eating out of charity (صدكج ). 134
3. Ordinary physical acts performed by every human being
Like eating, drinking, walking. Such acts are not meant to lay down laws. If one imitates the Prophet (saw) in these acts out of love for him and with the intention to get reward, he will be rewarded for this.
But the etiquettes and manners prescribed by the Messenger of Allah for the performance of such acts are part of that which is meant to be a binding law. 135
4. Acts based on human experience
This may include acts that pertain to his experience as a human being, like the organizing of the army, tactics of war, trading skills.
These acts don’t become precedents of law, because their basis is skill and experience rather than revelation.
However, if they are still relevant to one’s situation they might be followed.
136
Status of the Sunnah
with respect to the Qur’an
The Sunnah is the second source just next to the Qur’an which is the first source.
There will be no Islam without the adoption of the sunnah.

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The Sunnah is basically an elaboration and commentary on the Qur’an .
Some ahkamare found in the Qur’anin general, in an undetermined or unelaborated form.
The Sunnahrestricts, qualifies, or elaborates these ahkam. 138
The Sunnah is a concrete implementation, a tangible form and the actual embodiment of the Qur’an
The Sunnah may lay down some rules that are not mentioned in the Qur’an
Qur’an says: ‚And whatsoever the messenger brought to you, follow it. And whatsoever he forbids, abstain from it‛ (al-Hashr:7) The knowledge we get from The Sunnah
139
Worship (عتبدث )
The rulings and teachings related to عتبدث
Halal and haram:
In food, drinks, clothes, and transactions:
-the Sunnah interprets what needs to be interpreted in the Qur’an .
-The Sunnah may add some prohibitions which are not included in the Qur’an .
140
Law
(family, criminal, commercial, procedural, international )
Manner of conduct:
The biography of the Prophet (saw) is the model of individual moral conduct.
‚A noble model you have in Allah’s Apostle, for all whose hope is in Allah, and in the final Day, and who often remember Allah‛ (al-Ahzab:21)

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The model in implementing and embodying the teachings and principles of the Qur’an
The model in the relationship between humans and Allah (‘ibadah)
The model in establishing a family and treating well the wives as well as the children. 142
A model in dealing with people.
A model in hard-working, patience, and perseverance etc.
Leadership:
He was a model leader from whom we learn the requirements of a successful leader. 143
Da‘wah:
How he started from nothing and ended with hundreds of thousands of followers after two decades only. 144
Nation building and social reformation:
How he established a nation and changed an almost primitive society dominated by tribalism and rivalries among different tribes and social classes to a civilized and strong state characterized by unity, cooperation, and brotherhood.

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145
Eliminating idolatry and establishing Tawhid
Eliminating bad social values in dealing with the weak social classes: women, slaves, poor people, black people, etc.
146
Reason (اهعلل )
as a Sources of Knowledge147
Reason as a Source of Knowledge
Theterm‚reason‛isusedindifferentsensesandmeanings:
1.Thepowerofbeingabletothinkinalogicalandrationalmanner,asdistinctfromexperienceoremotions.
2.Abilitytothinkclearlyandcoherently
3.Theabilityorprocessofdrawinglogicalinferences. 148
Meanings/ Functions of Reason:
1.Reasonissometimesusedtodenoteanumberofself-evidentprinciples(suchastheprincipleofnon-contradiction)whichgoverntheprocessofthinkingofmentallycompetentpeople,regardlessoftheirculturalbackground.
-Thesefundamentaltruthsareintuitivelyapprehended
-asopposedtosensation,perception,feeling, desire(theexistenceofwhichisdeniedbyempiricists)

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In this sense, reason is an instrumentused for examining the coherence and rationality of a body of statements.
The examination allows us to conclude that the examined statements are:
-Either coherent, and hence in conformity with the principles of reason;
-Or contradictory, and thus in violation of reason
Reason which gives a priori knowledge (pure reason) 150
2.Thecapacityofrationalbeingstoacknowledgethetruthofcertainassertionsanddenythetruthofotherswiththepowertoabstract,analyze, synthesize
Abodyofknowledgewhichhasbeenexaminedandsystemizedbytheprincipleoflogicandconsideredbycertainpeopleasreasonable.
=Reasonasamentalfaculty.
Reasonistobeassociatedwithmethodsandmechanismsusedinscienceandknowledge, generally,ratherthanasourceofknowledge.
151
Reason vs. Revelation
The faculty of reasoning is one of the most precious gifts of Allah to mankind.
Reason is the basis of taklif(legal capacity) because it is the power of discernmentby which humans can distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
Reason is the basis of Iman/ faith, thus, it is given the authority to examine the authenticity of prophets and the revelation they claim to bring from God.
152
The Qur’an is full of references which command and exhort people to think, contemplate, and to examine the claimed revelation
This shows that:
-Islam values reason; and
-Islam is confident that there will be no contradiction between what is contained in the revelation and what can be reasoned by human reason

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What is claimed by unbelievers to be irrational or unreasonable is either:
= Mere speculationand ignorance, such as when they deny some beliefs or they misunderstand them.
”وَهَب يَتَّبِعُ أَكْثَرُهُنِ إِلاَّ ظَىًّب إِوَّ الظَّوَّ لا يُغْىِي هِوَ الْحَقِّ شَيِئًب إِوَّ المَّهَ
عَمِينٌ بِهَب يَفْعَمُووَ“ )يوىس: 36 )
But most of them follow nothing but conjecture and speculation: truly conjecture and speculation can never challenge or replace truth. Verily Allah is well aware of all that they do. (10:36) 154
=Ormerewishesanddeludedhopes(hawa)
” كََّبهُ اّ هَ دَِٖخُلَ اهْجَ جٌََّ اِهَّب يَ نَب دُُّّا ؤَ صٌََبرَ خِوْمَ
ؤَيَب ىٌُُِِِّٖ كُلْ بَُخُ اّ تُرِ بَُ نٌَُىِ اِ نُ خٌُْىِ صَبدِكِ “ًٖ )اهتلرث: 111 )
And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or a Christian." Those are their vain desires. Say: "Produce your proofif you are truthful." (2: 111) 155
Interestingly,thosewhoclaimtorejectreligion/revelationbasedonlogicandrationalityarecharacterizedbytheQur’anasthosewhofailtousetheirmentalfaculties/ reasonproperly.
”ذُىَّ جَعَوْ بٌَمَ عَوَ شَرِ عَٖجٍ يِ الأَيِرِ فَبخَّتِعِ بَِ لَّا خَخَّتِعِ ؤَ اَُِّءَ
اهَّذِ لا عَِٖوَيُ “ًَّ )اهجبذ جٖ: 18 )
“ Then We put you on the right way of religion; so follow that way, and do not follow the desires of those who do not know.‛ (45: 18) 156
” يََّذَلُ اهَّذِ نَفَرُ اّ نَيَذَلِ اهَّذِ عٌَِْٖقُ تِيَب لا شَِٖيَعُ اِلاَّ دُعَبءّ
دٌََِّاءّ صُىٌّ تُنْىْ عُيِ فَ ىُِِ لا عَِٖلِوُ “ًّ )اهتلرث: 171 )
The parable of those who reject Faith is as if one were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and blind, they are void of wisdom. (2: 171)

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157
Hawwas (senses)
as Means to Knowledge
158
Senses as sources of Knowledge: The Qur’an urges us to use the faculties of senses.
It blames the Kuffar for not using their senses properly.
The faculties of senses will bear witness for or against one on the Day of Judgment. 159
Sound Senses (Hawwas al-Salimah) 1. Hearing2. Sight, 3. Smell, 4. taste, 5. touch160
Hearing (al-sam’)
It is a faculty (quwa) placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear hole, by which sounds are perceived.
It is by way of connecting with the ear hole the air, which has assumed the quality of the sounds, meaning that Allah then creates perception in the soul (al-nafs) [E.Elder, 18]

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Seeing (al-basar)
It is a faculty placed in the two hollow nerves which meet each other in the brain, thence they separate and go to the two eyes; by this faculty are perceived rays of light, colours, shapes, measures, motions, the beautiful and the ugly, and other things, the perception of which Allah creates in the soul whenever the creature uses this faculty. 162
Smelling (al-shamm)
It is a faculty placed in the two protruding lumps on the front of the brain, which are like the two nipples of the breast; by this faculty odors are perceived by way of connecting with the cartilage of the nose the air which has assumed the quality of the odors.
163
Taste (al-zawq)
It is a faculty spread out in the nerves situated on the organ of the tongue; by this faculty flavors are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted, and through its reaching to the nerves.
164
Touch (al-lams)
It is a faculty spread out into all the body by which heat and cold, moisture and dryness, and the like are perceived at the time of touching and contact.

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Methodology
Definition:
Method:
Aparticularwayofdoingsomething,esp.asystematicone;impliesanorderlylogicalarrangement.
Methodology:
1.Thetheoreticalanalysisofthemethodsappropriatetoafieldofstudyortothebodyofmethodsandprinciplesparticulartoabranchofknowledge.
Kinds of Methodologies
i. Methodology in revealed knowledge
ii. Methodology in human knowledge (pure and social sciences)
iii. Integrative methodology of revealed knowledge and human knowledge. 166What is Islamic Methodology?
•Methodology means a technique or method.
•It is the field of inquiry concerned with the examination of methods used in the study of natural sciences, human and social sciences and religious sciences in order to understand the subjects.
•A comprehensive Islamic methodology means toIslamize and integrate knowledge on the basis of the combination between the revelation and reason in order to overhaul the obstacles and challenges facing a modern man and the society.
167
Methodologies used by the early Muslim scholars Slide Number?
Ijtihad
(wahy, `aql and
Hawas)
Istihsan
(Juristic
Preference)
Masalih
Mursalah
(public interest)
`Urf
(a particular
Custom)
Consultation
&
Consensus
Chain of
Transformation
Reliable
Narrators
Verifications
Collection of
Data
Islamic
Methodologies168

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Islamic Methodology
1.Collection of data of the Qur‟an and Sunnah
2.Verified techniques used by the narrators in order to ensure the authenticity of narrations.
3.Compilation of the Qur‟an and Sunnah.
4.Considering the reliable narrators with specific criteria.
5.Chain of transformation, no gap between two generations and not less than 40 forty narrators.
6.Memorizations of the Qur‟an and Sunnah.
169
Islamic Methodology
7. Consultation among the scholars and consensus based on majority opinions.
8. Ijtihad (rational arguments, explanation, interpretation and adjustment with the local culture and custom)
9. Istihsan (juristic preference), supplementary methods in order to make up for the growing number of new situations that were difficult with the textual and the analogical arguments.
170
Islamic Methodology
10. Maslahah or Masalih Mursalah (public interest), supplementary methods, if the texts of the Qur‟an and Hadith or consensus or analogy were not available.
11. `Urf (custom of a particular society or a nation), supporting for adjustment from avoiding the contradictions and social division and disunity for the public interest.
171
Merits of the Traditional Approach
Merits of the traditional approach were the sincerity, piety, enthusiasm, commitment, and dedication of the early Muslim researchers, many of whom looked for their rewards in the Hereafter.
172

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Islamic research, experimentation and empirical investigation were considered acts of „ibadah.
The God-consciousness of the traditional scholars was reflected in their writings and research, which they would commence with bismillah(in the name of Allah), seek His blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him.
173
The holistic nature of the traditional Islamic educational system made no distinction between revealed knowledge and empirically derived knowledge.
174
Knowledge was perceived as a comprehensive whole, with empirically derived knowledge subject to the verification of revealed knowledge.
175
Tawhidic Criteria for Islamic Methodology
Three main tawhidic criteriafor Islamic methodology are as follows:
1.Anything which does not correspond with the reality must be rejected.
2.Ultimate contradictions must be denied and rejected.
3.Approaches must be open in order to adjust and accommodate new situations facing the society and man.
176

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Merits of Islamic Methodology
Summarized177
s
Merit of
Islamic
Methodologies
Allah’s
pleasure
Pure
Intention
For
humanity
Commitment to
People and
society
Reflection
Of
Allah
Awareness
Self-Initiative
(Establishing
Institutions)
Identifying the
Short-comings
Of Empirical
Knowledge.
Combination of
Wahy& Aql
Mastery of
Arabic
Language
As Ibadah
Knowing context,
Purpose and
Application of the
Texts178
Obstacles
And
Recommendations
for
Muslim
Scholars
Depended on
Traditional
method
Depended on
Western
Method
Creativity and
Initiative ness
Absence of
Islamic
Curriculum
Mis- Propagation
And
Misconception
Unavailability
Financial and
Technical
support
Regaining
Sincerity and
Pure intention
For
humanity
Bilingual
Competency
Traditional
Methods as
Inspiration
Integrating
Between
Wahyand
Aql
Verification
of
Validities,
shortcoming
179
Methodology in Human Knowledge (pure and social sciences)
180

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181
Science
From Latin word scientia means systematic knowledge of the physical or material world
182
Knowledge of Science
Is acquired through experience, observation and research
Discursive: preceded by arguments
Inductive and deductive
183
Two scientific methods/ logical systems : induction & deduction
1. Deductive method (istinbat)(استىببط )
The researcher begins with a theory and then derives one or more hypotheses from it for testing.
184
Theresearcherimplementsthoseobservationstoseewhethertheyconfirmorfailtoconfirmsthehypotheses.
Next,theresearcherdefinesthevariablesineachhypothesisandtheoperationstobeusedtomeasuretheminspecificobservableterms.

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185
2.Inductivemethod(istiqra’)(استقراء )
Amethodofdiscoveringgeneralrulesandprinciplesfromparticularfactsandexamples.
Ininductiononestartsfromobserveddataanddevelopsageneralizationwhichexplainstherelationshipsbetweentheobjectsobserved. 186
Characteristics of Scientific Method
1.Everythingisopentoquestion
Inourquesttounderstandthings,weshouldstrivetokeepanopenmindabouteverythingwethingweknoworwewanttounderstand.
Whatwecall‚knowledge‛istransitionalandsubjecttorefutation!!
“Isthispossible?
“Canthischaracteristicbeopen?
“Towhichextentcanweholdthisperception?
187
2.Evidencebasedonobservation
Scientificmethodseeksknowledgethroughobservedevidenceandnotauthority,traditionorideology.
Theevidenceshouldbesystematic, comprehensive,andasobjectiveaspossible.
188
Basic Steps in Scientific Research:
1. Collection of data
This is a common basis of all sciences; pure, human, and social.

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189
This is a function of perception and cognition.
-The mind goes on collecting data from all kinds of observations and experiences. Simultaneously, the mind, by using its power of identification and retention (the ability to remember things), goes on establishing relationships
190
Theobservationwillbeonsomeassumedcorrelationbetweensomeaspectsaccordingtosometentativehypothesistoproveifthereisanyinterrelationshipsbetweenthem.
Thisobservationcanbedoneinalaboratory(physics,chemistry,biology, etc.)orinafieldwhenthepartsunderstudyspreadovervastareasintimeandspace(astronomy,geology).
191
Observationcanbedonethroughsensesandperceptivepowerorbyhelpofscientificequipment(devicesformeasurement)andtechnologicalequipment(devicestofacilitateworkandutilizingtheresourceofenvironment).
Theadvanceofscientificandtechnologicalequipmenthavecontributedtotheexpansionofmethodsandmeaningsofcollectionofscientificdataandthehorizonofobservation. 192
InMuslimhistoryofscienceitisafactthatMuslimscientistsrealizedatanearlystagetheimportanceofscientificequipmentforcollectionofdata, thereforetheyintroducedbigastrolabes(scientificinstrumentusedforreckoningtimeandforobservationalpurposestoenableastronomerstocalculatethepositionoftheSunandprominentstarswithrespecttoboththehorizonandthemeridian)…

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193
andquadrants(aninstrumentformeasuringangles, especiallytocheckyourpositionatseaortolookatstars)forexactobservationsofstarsandplanets,andevenhadinventedasphericalastrolabe.
194
Measures to guard against distortion:
Thepersontakingobservationsshouldbeclearinhismind;heshouldnotbeobsessedbyanypreconceivedideas.
Heshouldrecordonlywhatisreallyhappening(objective).
Heneedspatienceandperseverancetoensurethereliabilityofhisobservations.
195
Eventheobservationstakenwithallthiscarecannotbetakenattheirfacevalue,untilpreliminarystatisticaltestsconfirmitsreliability,oranumberofotherscientistsconfirmitindependently.
TherulesofobservationlaiddownbyJabiribnHayyan(chemistry):
1.Thetimeandseasonmustbecarefullychosen;
2.Itisbestforthelaboratorytobeinasecluded(quietandprivate)place;
196
3. The chemist must have trusted friends;
4. He must have sufficient time to conduct experiments;
5. Patience and reticence (not disclosing results hastily before testing them);
6. Perseverance;
7. He must not be deceived by appearances into bringing his operations to too hasty a conclusion.

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197
2.Classificationandanalysisofdata:
Toarrangethedatainsomeregularorder;
Tofindoutthecharacteristicsofthepopulationfromwheretherandomsampleofdatawastaken;
Toestablishtherelationsandcorrelationsbetweendifferentmembersofthepopulationunderstudyorwithmembersofotherseries. 198
3.Hypothesis:
Afterstudyingthecharacteristicsofthemembersofthepopulationunderstudy,therecomesthestagewhentheresearcherbeginstoaskthequestion‚How‛abouttheworkingofthosemembersandtheircorrelations.
Theanswertothisquestionisthehypothesiswhichdescribesinwordsorinsymbolstherelationshipthatappeartoexistbetweenthem.
199
Thishypothesiswillbedepending,tosomeextent,onguessing.Thisguessisbasedonthepastobservation,experienceandknowledge.
Theremaybemanyhypothesesdependingonthenumberofvariableparametersinvolved.
200
4-Hypothesestesting:
The hypotheses will be put into testing through experiments in different produced conditions to show their validity and applicability.

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201
Ifthepredictionsinthehypothesiscomeoutcorrect,thenthestatusofthehypothesisisraisedtothatofa‚theory‛.Ifthistheoryisfoundtobeuniversallyapplicable,itiscalleda‚lawofnature‛.
202
Observation
Logical deduction
Experimentation and empirical observations (under controlled conditions)
The hypothesis is validated = Theory
203
Origination of Scientific methodology
Muslimscientistswerethefirstonestointroducethismethodandtoemphasizetheroleofexperimentation.
JabiribnHayyan,forexample,statedclearlyinhisbookonchemistry:‚thefirstessentialistoperformpracticalworkandexperiments.Onewhodoesnotdosowillneverattainmastery‛. 204
Among the rules of experiments
laid down by him:
1.The operator should know the reason for performing the experiment (hypotheses and predictions should be set clearly);
2.The instructions must be properly understood;

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205
Impossible and profitless processes should be avoided (vague hypotheses which don’t lead to definite predictions, or hasty experiments which lead to vague results, are of no value).
206
Example:
Until the 10thcentury the Greek and Egyptian theory of geocentric cosmology was assumed to be true, and It was held by early Muslim scientists.
207
AccordingtothistheorythefixedstarsarefartherthanthestarsoftheMilkyWay/theGalaxy(thesystemofstarsthatcontainsoursunanditsplanets)whichissupposedtobeclosetotheearthandtobesituatedintheatmosphereoftheearth.
208
InGreekastronomy,thiswasanaxiomandallotherproblemsofastronomyhadtosatisfythis‚truth‛.
TheMuslimastronomerIbnal-Haytham,basedonhisinductivemethodandwithhelpoftheequipmentdevelopedbyMuslimscientists, cametoaconclusionthatthestarsoftheMilkyWaywereasfaroffastheotherfixedstars,andthattheywerenotsituatedintheatmosphereoftheearth.

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209
Ibnal-Haythamwasfacingtwocontradictinghypotheses:theGreek‚axiom‛andhishypothesis.
Andthequestionwas:howtodecideaboutthevalidityofthesetwoopposinghypotheses? 210
Ibn al-Haytham suggested an experiment to decide about these hypotheses:
1.tomeasurethedistancefromthesameplaceindifferentseasons.
2.tomeasurethedistanceatthesametimefromtwoplacesfarapartontheearth.
211
3.TheresultwasthatifthestarsoftheMilkyWayareintheatmosphereoftheearth,then,inboththesetsofobservationssuggested,theirrelativepositionswillbedifferent.
212
IfthestarsoftheMilkyWayareasfarastheotherfixedstars,therewillbenochangeintherelativepositionsofthetwosetsofstarsineithercases.
ObservationsweretakenanditwasfoundthatthestarsoftheMilkyWaydidnotchangetheirrelativepositionsamongthefixedstars.

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213
Herethevalidityofthehypothesiswasnottestedbythehelpofdeductivelogicalone.Onlythepredictionswerededucedbylogicandgeometry.Butthevalidityofthehypothesiswasprovedbyexperimentandobservation.Andthisiswhatiscalledtheinductivemethodofmodernscience.
214
Draper, Conflict between Science and Religion
Thecharacteristicsoftheir(Muslims’)methodareexperimentandobservation,geometricalandmathematicalsciencesthatworkedasinstrumentsofreasoning.
Intheirnumerouswritingsonmechanics, hydrostatics,optics,etc.itisinterestingtoremarkthatthesolutiontoaproblemisalwaysbyperforminganexperimentalobservation.
Itwasthisthatmadethemtheoriginatorsofchemistry;
215
thatledthemtotheinventionofallkindsofapparatusfordistillation(tomakealiquidpurebyheatingituntilitbecomesagas,thencoolingitandcollectingthedropsofliquidthatform),sublimation(conversionofasubstancefromthesolidtothevapourstatewithoutitsbecomingliquid),fusion(theprocessorresultofjoiningtwoormorethingstogethertoformone,likethefusionofcopperandzinctoproducebrass),filtration(theprocessoffilteringaliquidorgas),etc.; 216
thatcausedtheminAstronomytoappealtodividedinstrumentssuchasquadrantsandastrolabes,inChemistrytoemploythebalance, thetheoryofwhichtheywereperfectlyfamiliarwith,toconstructtablesofspecificgravityandastronomicaltableslikethoseofBaghdadandSpain,greatimprovementsinGeometry,theinventionofAlgebraandtheadoptionofIndiannumerationinArithmetic. Suchweretheresultsoftheperformanceoftheinductivemethod”theirdecliningthereveries(imaginations/dreams)ofPlato.‛

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217
FrancisBacon,whoisconsideredbytheWestasoneofthefoundersofinductive/scientificmethod,inhisbookNovumOrganum(1stquarterofthe17thcentury)whilepleadingfortheintroductionofempiricisminEuropesaysagainandagainthat:
‚greatauthorities‛followthisandconsiderthismethodbetterthantheolddeductivemethodoftheGreeks.
218
Butheneveroncementionsthenameofthe‚greatauthorities‛ andthe‚wisepeople‛
NooneappliedthismethodbeforeexceptMuslimscientists. Itissuggestedthathedidnotmentionthembynameforfearofinquisition.
219
Achievements of scientific method:
Freedsciencesfromthedominationofrigiddeductivemethodthatismoresuitabletotheoreticalandphilosophicalstudies.
Limitedthesphereofintellectualspeculationsandmadeabigroomforempiricalknowledge.
220
FreedscientificresearchfromthegripofGreekaxioms.
Limitedthesphereofmetaphysicalstudiesandmadeshifttonaturalandphysicalstudies.

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221
Successfulresultsachievedbyscientistsgavethemconfidenceinthisscientificmethodandencouragedthemtofurthertheirresearch.
This,inturn,ledtoexpansionofthehorizonofscientificresearch; discoveringnewlawsandopeningnewareas. 222
Experimentalendeavourledtothetransformationofsciencetotechnology,andtheinventionofsophisticatedmachinesandequipment.
223
‚Side effects‛ of the
scientific method
Theoverconfidenceinandadorationofthescientificmethodledtoextremerationality.
Extremerationalityledtotheadoptionofscientificmethodinthefieldofhumanandsocialsciences.
224
Empiricism/ logical-positivism
(from the Greek word empeiria = experience.)
InauguratedbyFrancisBaconanddevelopedbyJohnLocke(1632-1704)Inphilosophy,theattitudethatbeliefsaretobeacceptedandactedupononlyiftheyfirsthavebeenconfirmedbyactualexperience.

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225
Stressingexperience,Empiricismisopposedtotheclaimsofauthority, intuition,imaginativeconjecture,andabstract,theoretical,orsystematicreasoning(Rationalism)assourcesofreliablebelief.
Theessenceofempiricismisobservation,measurement,andquantificationofsensedataavailabletotheobserver.
226
Early empiricism vs. Revelation
AlthoughBaconproclaimstheuniversalapplicabilityofinduction,hehimselftreatsitalmostexclusivelyasameanstonaturalknowledgeandignoresitssocialapplication.
227
Mostdivineknowledgemustcomefromrevelation,andreasonhasnothingtodowithit.Thereissuchathingasdivinephilosophy(whatwaslatercalledrational,ornatural, theology),butitssoletaskandcompetenceistoprovethatthereisaGod. 228
JohnLockeoneofthefathersofempiricismdidconsiderrevelation,inprinciple,asasourceofcertaintypeofknowledge.Butheassignedtoitaverymarginalandsubordinaterole.
Hearguesthatknowledgeacquiredbyhumanreasoningismorereliableandcertainthanknowledgereceivedthroughrevelation.

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229
Becauseonemaydoubtthepreservationoftheoriginalrevelationthroughtheactofnarration,orquestionthelackofmeansforvalidatingorsubstantiatingitscontent.
Butonecanalwaysbecertainaboutwhathisfacultyofunderstandingconsiderstrue.
230
Hegivesrevelationtheupperhandoverreasonintwoinstances:
1.Inquestionsbelongingtotherealmoffaith, becauseit’sinaccessibletohumanreasoning.
2.Revelationshouldsupersedereasonintherealmofprobableknowledgewhichdoesnotrisetocertainty.
(Butonecanalwaysbecertainaboutwhathisfacultyofunderstandingconsiderstrue.)
231
Positivism
Inphilosophy,generally,anysystemthatconfinesitselftothedataofexperienceandexcludesapriori(knowledgethatisindependentofallparticularexperiences,asopposedtoaposterioriknowledge,whichderivesfromexperiencealone)ormetaphysicalspeculations.
232
As a philosophical ideology and movement, Positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Auguste Comte(1798”1857).
It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as Empirio criticism, Logical Positivism, and Logical Empiricism, etc.

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233
The basic affirmations of Positivism are:
1.Thatallknowledgeregardingmattersoffactisbasedonthe‚positive‛dataofexperience;
2.Thatbeyondtherealmoffactisthatofpurelogicandpuremathematics,whichwere,inalaterphaseofPositivism,classifiedaspurelyformalsciences. 234
3.Strictadherencetothetestimonyofobservationandexperienceistheall-importantimperativeofthePositivists.
4.Initsbasicideologicalposture, Positivismisworldly,secular,anti- theological,andanti-metaphysical.
235
Naturalism/ natural method
Atheorythatrelatesscientificmethodtophilosophybyaffirmingthatallbeingsandeventsintheuniversearenatural.
Consequently,allknowledgeoftheuniversefallswithinthepaleofscientificinvestigation.
236
Usuallynaturalismdeniestheexistenceoftrulysupernaturalrealities.
Naturalistsassertthatnatureisreality.Thereisnothingbeyond,nothing‚otherthan,‛ no‚otherworld‛ofbeing.

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237
Naturalismpresumesthatnatureisinprinciplecompletelyknowable.
Thereisinnaturearegularity,unity, andwholenessthatimpliesobjectivelaws,withoutwhichthepursuitofscientificknowledgewouldbeabsurd.
238
Naturalismhasnoontologicalpreference:dualismandmonism, atheismandtheism,idealismandmaterialismareallpersecompatiblewithit.
239
Two positive results of bahaviourism
1.Development of neurosciences.
2.Development of behaviour therapy(behaviour modification), which focused on modifying observablebehaviour, rather than on the thoughtsand feelingsof the patient (as in psychoanalysis). 240
Conclusion
W.M.Smart,Theoriginoftheearth.
Letusnotthenexaltthescientificmethodundulyastheclosepreserveofthescientistnor,whichismuchmoreimportant,astheonlymeansbywhichweattempttodiscoverthesecretsofnature.

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241
It is easy for a scientist to be a materialist if he sees only in the universe the apparently relentless (continuous) unfolding of natural law, and forgets that there are domains where the laws of physics are irrelevant
242
Butmoreandmorescientistsarerealizingthattheyareexploringonlyonesectionofthegreatworldofnatureinallitsmanifoldcomplexity;beauty,moral, conduct,spiritualvalues,religiousexperience,arealloutsidetheirdomain, yetallcomewithinman’sscrutinywhenheattemptstointerprettheuniverseasawholeandstrivestodiscernpurposetherein…‛
243
Harris, Kelvin (1979), Education and Knowledge
Thelimitationsofempiricisminhumanandsocialsciencescanbemanifestedindifferentareasamongthem:
Derivedconclusionscouldnotbelogicallyvalidforgeneralizationbecausetherecouldbeexceptions.
244
Methodologyofdatacollectionistheoryladen,thatis,theinvestigatorhaspreconceptionsandmotives,whichinfluencehischoiceofmethodologyofinvestigationandthissubsequentlyaffectstheoutcome

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245
‚ThehumanisticstudiesofWesternmanandthesocialanalysisofWesternsocietybyaWesternscientistarenecessarily"Western"andcannotserveasmodelsforthestudyofMuslimsoroftheirsociety.‛
Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1977), "Islamizing the Social Sciences" 246
The Search for an Islamic Methodology
Methodologycomprises:
1.Technicalprocedures
2. Conditions for using methods/ conceptual aspects of methodology
247
1.Naturalandphysicalsciences
Thescientificmethodinitstechnicalprocedureshasauniversalapplication.
ItwasinitiallystartedbyMuslimscientistsand,laterdevelopedbyWesternscientists,andbecameasaheritageofhumanity.
248
There is no objection to adopting the technical procedures developed by non-Muslims.
It needs to be applied within the Islamic ethical and ideological frame.
Production of Muslim scientists

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2.Social&humansciences
ThemainobjectstotheWesternmethodsusedinthedomainofhuman&socialsciencesare:
1.Theyareheavilyinclinedtowardsmaterialismandapplicationofproceduresofthenaturalsciences. Exclusionofspiritualaspect.
250
1.TheyembodytheWesternconcepts&values(exclusionofrevelation).
2.TheysettheWesternvalues& conceptsasuniversalnormsandmodelsbywhichothersocietiesshouldbyjudged.
251
TheemploymentofthisWesternmethodologyintheMuslimworldisleadingtowardWesternizationofMuslimsocieties. 252
Theissuesof:
Rejectingrevelationandcontrastingscientificwithrevealedknowledgeand;
Confiningrealitytotheempiricaloneunderthejustificationthatreasoncannotascertaintranscendentalreality;
ArenotrealproblemsinIslam.

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-Thesestructuresarenotimmediatelyencounteredbythesenses.Instead,thestructuresofempiricalexistenceareinferredthroughtheuseofcategoriesabstractedfromthesensible,andmediatedbypurely‚rational‛ categoriesandstatements.
254
e.g.
Ourunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweentheearthandthesunismediatedbymentalconstructs,andhenceiscompletelyatvariancewiththeimmediateimpressionreceivedfromthesenses.
255
2.Revelation,atleastinitsIslamicform, seeksitsjustificationinempiricalreality.
Divinerevelationseesempiricalrealityasthemanifestationofatranscendentalreality.
TheinterconnectednessoftheempiricalandtranscendentalisalwaysstressedbytheQur’an
256
Bothrevelationandempiricalknowledgeareneededforacomprehensiveunderstandingofnature.
Thescience-revelationconflictisneitherimperativenoruniversal,butspecifictoWesternreligionandexperience.ThereisnoneedatalltoreproduceitinMuslimculture.

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Setting the norm/ standard/ model
Insocialandhumansciencenorms, models,standardsarecrucialforunderstanding,judging,andchanginghumanbehaviouraswellassocialphenomena.
Thenorms/standards/modelsareusedtodeduceconclusions. 258
WesternscholarshipassumesthatthepracticesoftheWesternsociety(whichisassumedtostandatthepeakofhumanevolution)becomethestandardofnormality.
259
Integrative Methodology of Revealed Knowledge and Human Knowledge
ThecommonpointamongMuslimscholarswhoareconcernedwithIslamizationofknowledge/ IslamicmethodologyistheincorporationofRevelationintodifferentfieldsofresearch.
260
Butwhenitcomesto‚How‛theanswersmaybedifferent.
Untilnow,onlylittlehasbeendone, andmoreeffortsarerequiredtoestablishaviableIslamicmethodologyfordifferentsocialandhumansciences

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Islamic Methodology should:
Incorporaterevelationasasourceofknowledgeandgiveititsdueroleinguidinghumaninquiryofknowledge.
Workunderthedirectionsofourworldview(theorigin&natureofmananduniverse,thepurposeoftheircreation,andtheirdestiny).
262
ReflecttheIslamicobjectivesandvalues
Setournorms/standards/modelswhicharederivedfromtheQur’an, theSunnah,andthepracticeoftheearlyMuslimsociety
263
A framework for islamization of knowledgeIslamic legacyWestern knowledge
Mastery of disciplinary substantive knowledgeMastery of analytical and synthetic techniques
University textbooksIslamic University
Perfect/universal man
Conclusion
Muslims of the past always followed the Islamic methodology in their research:
They based their work on the principle of tawhid;
They verified the information to ensure its authenticity;
They were sincere, pious, enthusiastic, committed and dedicated researchers;
They perceived knowledge as a comprehensive whole;
They avoided any innovation in the religion for fear of Allah‟s punishment; 264

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They had greater familiarity with classical Arabic than contemporary Muslim scholars, which facilitated their understanding and analysis of the original texts;
They used to commence their work with bismillahi al-Rahman al-Rahim (in the Name of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful), seeking Allah‟s blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him; in this way they treated their research as an act of „ibadah.
266
Islam and
Civilization
1.Meaning of civilization
2.Civilization and Culture
3.Arabic terms for civilization
4.Characteristics of Civilization267
Arabic terms:
al-Hadarah/ Al-Tamaddun/ al- Madaniyyah
Al-Tamaddun/ al-Madaniyyah: derived from the word ‘madinah’(city or town), and ‘din’(religion).
Al-‘Umran268
Meaning of Civilization
An advanced level of development in society that is marked by complex social and political organization, and material, scientific, and artistic progress
A society, its cultureand its way of lifeduring a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world.

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The way and level of life of people in the cities as contrasted with the way and level of life in rural areas.
The relation between ‘madinah’and ‘din’indicates the role of religion in the establishment of civilization and refinement of social culture270
Civilization designates a condition of human society characterized by a high level of cultural and technological achievements;
and correspondingly complex social and political development
It is an advanced state of intellectual, cultural and material development in human society 271
Each civilization has a body or matter and a soul.
The body of the civilization is its material achievements such as buildings, infrastructure, agriculture, industry, educational institutions, technological equipment, and all that is related to various pleasures of worldly life.
272
The soul of civilization is the set of;
ideologies,
concepts,
moral values,
manners and traditions that are embodied in the behavior of individuals, groups, and their interrelations.

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Characteristics of Islamic civilization
1-Based on the توحيد
Muslim civilization was the first universal civilization that was based on a pure and strict unitarianism (unity of God)
The only one who deserves submission
The only one who deserves worship
The only one who deserves absolute obedience. 274
Eliminatesidolatry (idols, and statues)
Frees common people from the oppression of the kings, Papacy, and Brahmanism
Sets right the relationship between the ruler and the ruled (all people are equal)
275
2. Universality
Islamic civilization was the first civilization which embracedthe entire humanity
It declared equality of all human beings of all descents, races, andcolours
 إِ أَمْرَ نٍَُ عِ دَْْ اللََِّّ أَجْقَبمُ ‚Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is he who is the most righteous of you‛ (49: 13). 276
This civilization is attributed to all Muslims on an equal basis.
(Arab nationalism / Western civilization /supremacy of white man)
[Universality vs. Globalization]
Open to the contribution of all members of the Muslim ummah regardless of their race, ethnicity, or colour, and even non-Muslim citizens.

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3-Moderate Rationalism
It gives human reason a high position
Its faith is based on reasoning and conviction
It rejects superstitious and unfounded beliefs.
It does not go to the extreme of denying the truths which are not directly related to empirical knowledge but are based on revealed knowledge
278
4.Tolerance
Tolerance towards people of different religions (especially Christians and Jews)
Minorities enjoyed a high level of tolerance and freedom of religion and economic pursuit.
This characteristic is peculiar for a civilization based on religious foundations. 279
It would be reasonable for a secularist who does not believe in any religion to treat religions equally and give people freedom of belief, but it may be difficult for a religious person to do so. 280
5. Integrated and balanced civilization
Integrates the faith with the state/ rejection of secularism
Integrates the body with the spirit (material vs. spiritual)
Integrates the worldly life with the life in the hereafter

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Integrates empirical sciences with revelation
Assigns priority to moral principles = morality vs. pragmatism
Integration in a balanced manner
Balance means following a middle course between two extremes of thought and action. 282
Western Culture and Civilization
WesternCivilizationis‚Thecivilizationthathasevolvedoutofthehistoricalfusionofcultures,philosophies,valuesandaspirationsofancientGreeceandRome; theiramalgamationwithJudaismandChristianity,andtheirfurtherdevelopmentandformationbytheLatin,Germanic, CelticandNordicPeoples‛. 283
Western Civilization
Characteristics of Western civilization
In terms of material progress and scientific exploration, the modern Western civilization has surpassed all civilizations across history.
Pushing forward man’s incentives and capabilities to exploit nature and benefit from it.
284
Technological achievements = eased human life, luxury
Effective management and organization
Respect of human rights within its homelands

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The ideologies of the Western civilization are:
1. Utilitarian materialism
This civilization may not deny the existence of God strongly and openly, or deny the existence of the spirit.
But it does not recognize the value of ‚God‛ in its ideological system. 286
It accepts only things which are considered by it as of ‚practical value‛
The ‚practical value‛ is in luxury and worldly pleasure = this is the real ‘God’
287
2. Secularism
Inspired by secular philosophy, devoid of certainty, subject to constant review and change
Its worldview formulation is not upon revealed knowledge and religious belief but rather upon cultural tradition, speculations to secular life centered upon man as physical entity288
religion as a personal matter limited to individual practice without any interference in social, economic or political activities
religious practice limited to dead rituals

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Destruction of moral values = utilitarianism/ pragmatism
Destruction of family (abortion, neglect of the elderly…)
Creates an atmosphere of fear, anxiety and distraction
3. Atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no God
290
4. Humanism
Reliance upon the powers of human reason alone to guide man through life291
5. Dualism
Adherence to the validity of dualistic vision of reality and truth
Affirmation of the reality of the temporary/impermanent aspect of existence projecting a secular worldview292
The Rise and Decline of Islamic civilization

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A brief chronology of Muslim Civilization
Preparatory phase
571:BirthoftheProphet.
ThisyearwasmarkedwithaninvasionofMakkahandanattempttodestroyKa‘bah(theyearoftheElephant).
610:ThefirstrevelationinthecaveatMountHira’.ThebeginningofMohammad’sprophethood. 294
621:FirstpledgeatAqaba.
ThesearchforaplacetoestablishMuslimstate.
622:SecondpledgeatAqaba.
TheacceptanceofthepeopleofYathribtoreceivetheProphet(saw)andhisfollowers295
The Emergence of the State
622:TheHijrah(migrationtoYathrib/ Madina),markstheestablishmentoftheMuslimstate.
624:BattleofBadr.
ThenewpowerintheArabpeninsula.
628:TruceofHudaibiya.
Peacetogivepeopleachancetoknowaboutthenewreligion,andtofocusonstrengtheningthenewlyemergedstate.
296
628:TheProphetaddressesletterstovariousheadsofstates. Goinginternational(beyondArabianterritories)
630:MuslimsreturnbacktotheirhomelandMakkahafterbeingexpelledfromit.

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631:Expedition to Tabuk
Sending a message to the Persian authorities who had been occupying the Arab territories and were hostile to the new religion.
632:Farewell pilgrimage at Makkah.
The Prophet addresses his followers with his last speech.
632:Death of the Prophet (saw).
Election of Abu Bakr as the Caliph. 298
Transitory instability
Attempts to destroy the new religion and state
Pseudo-prophets,
Rejection of paying Zakat (disloyalty to the central authority)
299
Wars of liberation:
633-641:LiberationofArabterritories(Bahrain,Oman,Iraq,Syria, al-Quds/Jerusalem,andtheremainingpartsofJazirah. (occupiedbyPersiansandRomanByzantines)
636:DefeatingtheoccupyingforcesoftheRomans(BattleofYermuk)followedbytheliberationofSyriaandal-Quds. 300
636:ThelastmajorbattleagainstPersianEmpire(thebattleofQadsiyyah) thefalloftheircapital‘Madain’.

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641:
-LiberationofoppressedpeopleinEgypt.
-TheCatholicArchbishopofEgyptinvitestheMuslimstohelpfreeEgyptfromRomanoppressors.
-ThisexemplifiesthealliancesformedbetweenMuslims,ChristiansandJewsduetotheMuslims'establishmentofreligiousfreedomforChristiansandJews.
302
644: Umar dies and is succeeded by Caliph Uthman
654:IslamspreadsintoallofNorthAfricawhichwaspartlyoccupiedbyRomans.
656:AlibecomestheCaliph.BattleoftheCamel.Anotherperiodofturmoilandpoliticalinstability(fightingbetweendifferentpoliticalgroups)
660:Mu'awiyahdeclareshimselfastheCaliphatDamascus. 303
661:Aliassassinated.AccessionofHasan.AnattempttotransformtheIslamicpoliticalsystemtoamonarchysystem.Al-HasanbinAliabdicates(givesup/renounces) infavourofMu‘awiyah.Mu'awiyahbecomesthesoleCaliph. 304
680:Death of Muawiyah. Accession of His son Yazid. The monarchy system successfully established

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710:TariqibnMalikcrossesthestraitseparatingAfricaandEuropewithagroupofMuslimsandentersSpain.Ayearlater,7000MuslimmeninvadeGibraltar.
718:BythisyearalmosttheentireIberianpeninsulaisunderMuslimcontrol.
750:FallofDamascus.EndoftheUmayyadrule.
750:TheestablishmentoftheAbbasidrule306
756:Thefirstbreakaway
AbdulRahmanfoundstheUmayyadstateinSpain.
763:FoundationofBaghdad.
767:Thesecondbreakaway
KhawarijsetuptheirownstatebyIbnMadraratSijilmasa.
Thirdbreakaway:
RustamidstatesetupinMorocco307
ThosebreakawayswerefollowedbyhundredsofotherbreakawaysandcivilwarsacrosstheMuslimworld
792:InvasionofSouthFrance.
814:CivilwarbetweenAminandMa’mun.AminkilledandMamunbecomestheCaliph.
827:Ma’mundeclarestheMutazilacreedasthestatereligion.
308
870:TurksrevoltagainstMuhtadi,hisdeathandaccessionofMu‘tamid.
968:RomanByzantinesoccupyAleppo.
1091:The Normans conquer the island of Sicily; end of the Muslim rule.
1095:Thefirstcrusade.
1099:Thecrusaderscaptureal-Quds.
1144:Secondcrusade.

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1187:Salahal-DinwrestsJerusalemfromtheChristians.
Thirdcrusade.
1212:BattleofAI‘UqabinSpain. MuslimsdefeatedbytheChristiansinSpain
1248:BythisyearMuslimcontrolofSpainwasreducedtotheKingdomofGranada,whichsurvivesformorethantwocenturies. 310
1258:BaghdaddestroyedbytheMongols.
EndoftheAbbasidrule.
1260:BattleofAynJalutinSyria.
TheMongolsaredefeatedbytheMamluksofEgypt;
andthespelloftheinvincibilityoftheMongolsisbroken.
311
1266:Theeighthcrusade.
ThecrusadersinvadeTunisia. Failureofthecrusade.
1267:MalikulSalihestablishesthefirstMuslimstateofSamudraPasaiinIndonesia.
TheSpaniardsinvadeMorocco. TheMarinidsdriveawaytheSpaniardsfromMorocco. 312
1274:NinthcrusadeunderEdwardIofEngland.ThecrusadeendsinfiascoandEdwardreturnstoEngland.
1371:IntheOttomanTurksempire, InvasionofBulgaria, BulgarianterritoryuptotheBalkansannexedbytheTurks.

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1446:IntheOttomanTurksempire, SecondbattleofKossovaresultinginthevictoryoftheTurks.SerbiaannexedtoTurkey.
314
1453:CaptureofConstantinople(Istanbul)bytheOttomanempire.
1456:AnnexationofSerbiabyOttomanempire.
1461:AnnexationofBosniaandHerzegovina.
1462:AnnexationofAlbania. 315
1475:AnnexationofCrimea(peninsulainsoutheasternUkrainebetweentheBlackSeaandtheSeaofAzov).
TurkeybecamethemasteroftheAegeanSea. 316
1507:ThePortugueseunderestablishstrongholdsinthePersianGulf.
1511:ThePortugueseconquerMalaccafromtheMuslims.
1517:TheOttomansdefeattheMamluksandconquerEgypt.
1529:UnsuccessfulOttomansiegeofVienna.

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1550:TheriseoftheMuslimkingdomofAcehinSumatra.
1550:IslamspreadstoJava,theMoluccas,andBorneo.
1687:DefeatoftheTurksbyAustria. 318
1718:InthewaragainstAustria, Turkeysuffersdefeat.BythetreatyofPassarowichTurkeylosesHungary.
1797:RussiaoccupiedDaghestan.
1811:TheBritishoccupiedIndonesia. 319
1812:MadinafelltoEgyptians.
1813:MakkahandTaifcapturedbyEgyptianforcesandSaudisexpelledfromHijaz.
1827:MalayabecameapreserveoftheBritishaccordingtoAnglo-Netherlandstreatyin1824.
320
1830:FrenchforcesoccupyAlgeria, ending313yearsruleofTurks.
1832:TurksdefeatedinthebattleofKoniabyEgyptianforces.
1857:BritishcapturedDelhiandeliminatedMughalruleinIndiaafter332years.Thiswasalsotheendof1000yearsofMuslimruleoverIndia.
.

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1859:Imam Shamil defeated by Russian forces in Daghestan
1901:FrenchforcesoccupyMorocco.
1916:ArabrevoltagainstOttomanrule.LawrenceofArabialeadsattacksontheHijazRailway. 322
1918:SyriaoccupiedbyFrance.
1921:AbdAllahbinHusaynwasmadeKingofTransjordanbytheBritish.
1924:TheTurkishkhilafahisabolished.
1948:TheofficialestablishmentoftheJewishstateinPalestine.
323
Stages of the process of rise and fall
1)Gestation (Hijra ”the end of Abu Bakar’s khilafah)
2)Expansion/ Universal Empire
3)Decay (the second half of khilafa Abbasiyyah)
4) Invasion/ fall324
Causes of Rise of Muslim Civilization
1.Spiritualpower:atremendousimpulsewasgiventotheMuslimcommunitytoexplorelifeandtheworldaroundthem(lifeandworldcreatedforapurpose). TheMuslimsspreadthewordofAllah. Islam”waytosavepeopleandliberatethem

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2. Ability to transform the ideals of the Qur’an to daily conduct: Hard- work, perseverance, sincerity, honesty, patience
326
3.Intellectualfreedom,freeinghumanintellectfromsuperstitions,teachingpeopletothinkcriticallyandcreatively(prohibitionofimitationwithoutsoundevidence)
4.Politicalfreedom,equalitybetweentherulerandtheruled.
‚Allahhassentustofreehumansfromworshippingotherhumans,andtocommitthemtoworshippingAllah‛ 327
5.Openness:
Tolearnfromhumanexperience
Topeopleofdifferentracesandethnicities.
MuslimcivilizationwasajointendeavourofMuslimsfromdifferentpeoplesandraces
ItwasnotthemilitarypowerwhichenabledearlyMuslimstodominatehalfofthethenknownworld.Itwastheirrighteousnessandtheirhumaneness.
TheMuslimsintermarriedfreelywithlocalpeopleandbecamepartofthem. 328
6.Thespiritofseekingknowledge
MostoftherulersofBanuUmmayahandthefirsttwocenturiesofal-‘abbasiyyindynastieswereeducatedorscholars.
Theyencouragedlearningandscientificenquiryandusedtospendonitgenerously(theHouseofWisdom).

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329
The establishment of hundreds of schools and universities such as al- Nizamiyyah, al-Azhar, al- Qayrawan etc. 330
Inadditiontothegenerousspendingoneducationandscholars,waqf(endowmentfund)waswelldevelopedandplayedasignificantroleindevelopingeducationalinstitutions.
Althoughtherewasarelevantlevelofdictatorship,rulersdidnotusetointerfereineducationalinstitutionsandtheaffairsofscholars. 331
Causes of decline
Tribalism
Ethnocentrism
TheProphet(saw)wasabletosuppressthesesocialdiseasesandreducethemtotheminimallevelamongsahabahandsubstitutethemwithastrongbrotherhood.
332
ThenewcomerstoIslam,whousedtoliveundertheruleoftribesormonarchsandemperors,broughtwiththemthoseloyalties.
Sectarianism
Obsessionwithpower/prestige/
Strivingforpower”assassinations” overthrowingeachother”civilwars” separation”seekinghelpfromenemies

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Revolutions / insurgencies here and there
Moral decadence:
Dishonesty, indifference, cheating, laziness, neglecting obligation, involvement in haram, interest in pleasure and enjoyment rather than more serious things…etc.
Dictatorship/ political injustice/ changing the political system from shurato monarchy334
Weaknessofcentralauthority:
FormostofthelastthreecenturiesoftheAbbasidrule,therulers(Caliphs) becamenominal.
TherealsovereignpowerhadpassedalreadytotheTurks.
Therulersbecameundertheirdirectinfluenceandtheywerefrequentlychangedormurderedoneafteranother.
335
Deteriorationintheeducationalleveloftherulers:Theguardians,soonbecamethemasters.
Theyweremenofsimple,downright, brutalcharacter,ofenergyandcommonsense.
TheOttomanTurks/Mamalikweresoldiersfirst.Theyweresoldierlyinalltheydid. 336
Theydidinfusesomemanhoodintothedecliningempire,whichwouldhaveperishedbutforthem.
TheymanagedtofreesomeMuslimterritories,stoptheadvancementofMongols,andexpandtheMuslimempire.
ButthoserulerswerenotreallyqualifiedtomaintaintheMuslimcivilization.

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Atthebeginning,forcenturiesthecivilizationofIslamwasalmostunaffectedbythistransferofpowerfromaculturedpeopletoapeopleofcomparativeilliteracy,ratheritcontinuedtoprogressinspiteofit.
ButtheEmpirewasapparentlyprogressingonthewaveofabygoneimpulsewhichwasfadingaway.
338
Academicdecline
Islamicsciencesreachedthestageofstagnation;
ijtihadwasvirtuallystopped,
fanaticismtojuridicalaswellastheologicalschoolsofthoughtbecamewidespread, 339
Theextremismofphilosopherandtheologianswasmetwithanotherextremismofsomereligiousscholarswhowenttotheextentofprohibitingthestudyofphilosophyandthesciencesrelatedtoit,burningofthebooksofsomephilosophersandtheologiansinsomeareassuchasIbnRushd,al-Ghazzalietc. 340
Muslim Sciences: Origin and Development

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1. Philosophy, natural and physical sciences
The real development of Muslim natural and physical sciences started after the era of translation.
Translation of the intellectual heritage of other nations and civilizations started in the 2ndIslamic century from the four major languages: Greek, Syriac, Persian and Sanskrit. 342
In the 3rdcentury, the establishment of bayt al-Hikmah(The House of Wisdom) founded by Harun al-Rashid and well developed by his son al-Ma’mun.
It was a research and educational institute and the centre for intellectual development. 343
Many scientific works were rendered into Arabic in the field of mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacology, history, philosophy and other sciences.
The translators were Muslims as well as non-Muslim citizens.
344
Translation: advantages & disadvantages
Positive impact
Benefiting from human knowledge and experience
Negative impact
Translation was not confined to what is useful (pure sciences)
Extended to theology and metaphysical issues

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Creating confusion among some Muslims
Led to the creation of an elite group of philosophers who were fascinated with Greek philosophy and to some extent deviated from the right principles of Islam
Tension between this elite group and religious scholars346
2. Islamic sciences
Established and developed solely by Muslims
347
The Contribution of Muslim Scholars
(Natural Sciences) 348
Major Areas of Contribution
1.The adoption and development of the scientific/ inductive method
2. Development of different fields of science + inventions
3. Transfer of the intellectual heritage of the ancient civilizations to the modern civilization

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1-Al-Khawarizmi
Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa Al- Khawarizmi. (780-850 CE) his birthplace is Khwarizm (modern name: Khiva) south of the Aral Sea.
Al-Khawarizmi was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics.
350
He influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other mediaeval writer." (Phillip Hitti). 351
He is the founder of Algebra(al-Jabr)
In Arabic, the full expression was ‚Ilm aljabr wa al-Muqabalah‛ (the science of reunion and equations) and Algorithm(the old name for arithmetic)
These terms are derived from the title of his work, HisabAl-Jabr wal al- Muqabalah(Book of Calculations, Restoration and Reduction). 352
His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not only initiatedthe subject in a systematic form but he also developed itto the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of Algebra.
He also gives geometrical solutions (with figures) of quadratic equations, for example x2 + 1Ox = 39, an equation often repeated by later writers.

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353
In the twelfth century Gerard of Cremona and Roberts of Chester translated the ‘Algebra‛ of Al- Khawarizmi into Latin.
Mathematicians used it all over the world until the sixteenth century. 354
Algorithm = Arithmetic
His arithmetic synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. 355
He explained the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance developed by the Muslims.
He developed at length several arithmetical procedures, including the decimal system and operations on fractions.
356
He introduced the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals) which was later passed to Europe.
He wrote many books on arithmetic, among them: Kitab al-Jam’a wa al- Tafriq bi al-Hisab al-Hind, which was translated to and preserved in Latin language (the Arabic version was lost)

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A Latin translation of a Muslim arithmetic text was discovered in 1857 CE at the University of Cambridge library.
Entitled 'Algoritimi de Numero Indorumآ’, which is believed to be a copy of Al-Khawarizmiآ’s arithmetic text, which was translated into Latin in the twelfth centuryby Adelard of Bath (an English scholar). 358
Geography
He revised and corrected Ptolemy's views
He produced the first map of the known world in 830 CE.
His geography captioned Kitab Surat al- Ard,(The Face of the Earth) together with its maps, was translated to Latin language.
359
He worked on measuring the volume and circumference (the line that goes around the earth) of the earth (this measurement was ordered by Al-Ma’mun) 360
Geometry
He had many contributions to geometry including:
His astronomical and trigonometric tables, revised by Maslama Al-Majrti (Second half of tenth century), were translated into Latin as early as l126 by Adelard of Bath.
They were the first Muslim tables and contained not simply the sine function but also the tangent (Maslama's interpolation).