locomotion and support based on curriculum. excluded mechanism and the rest topic after mechanism of locomotion

1. LOCOMOTION AND SUPPORT
1)Understanding support & locomotion in human &
animals
2) Appreciating a healthy musculoskeletal system

2. LEARNING OUTCOMES (UNDERSTANDING
SUPPORT & LOCOMOTION)
I. Necessity for support/locomotion
II. Problems that could be faced
III. Solution for the problems
IV. Bones (components of axial & appendicular
skeletons)
V. Know bones, skeleton muscles & tendons

3. LEARNING OUTCOMES CONT…
VI. How movement is brought in a limb
VII. Function of cartilage and synovial fluid
VIII. Mechanism of locomotion
IX. Some consequences of impaired musculoskeletal
system on support & locomotion

4. INTRODUCTION
Support/Locomotion
Healthy
Support/Locomotion
Musculoskeletal
in Humans & Animals
System
Skeletal Muscles &
The Mechanism of
Skeleton Tendons in
Locomotion
movement

5. FORMS OF LOCOMOTION

6. INTRODUCTION CONT..
Definition:
Locomotion is the whole movement organisms from
place to place
Forms of locomotion:
 walking
 climbing
 running
 swimming
 crawling
 flying

7. NECESSITY FOR SUPPORT & LOCOMOTION IN
HUMANS & ANIMALS
The purposes of locomotion are to
 search for food
 search for a mate
 seek for shelter
 avoid from predators and other dangers

8. PROBLEMS FACED IN SUPPORT &
LOCOMOTION
 Water- supportive medium
- but it is dense & resists movement
 Air - less dense
- but a lot of effort and energy is needed to lift
an animal off to fly
 Land- provides with surface for support/movement
-but most animals need to hold their bodies
clear off the ground to minimise friction

9. SOLUTION FOR THE PROBLEMS
 In humans & animals, support & locomotion are
provided by the skeleton
 Skeleton is a structure that supports the body of a
human or an animal

10. SKELETON
Types of Skeleton
Exoskeleton Endoskeleton Hydrostatic Skeleton
crab fish worm
grasshopper cat caterpillar

11. EXOSKELETON
 Outer covering
 Made up of rigid & strong materials eg: calcium and
chitin
 Jointed external skeleton (chitin) provides
locomotion & support to insects (Phylum
Arthropoda)
 For molluscs (eg: snails,oysters) consists of a hard
shell of calcium to cover and protect the soft body

12. ENDOSKELETON
 Comprising of many component parts of cartilage or
bones
 These articulate (move against each other) at the
joints
 Soft tissues surround the bones, protected by the
skin

13. HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
 Pressure in spaces surrounded by muscles exerted
by the body fluids
 Body fluids do not flow out and is of constant value
 Forms an incompressible ‘skeleton’ for the muscles
to contract

14. IMPORTANCE OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Giving shape and form; without it the whole body
collapses
 Makes locomotion possible-skeleton works together with
muscles
 Protects soft tissues and vital organs
 Makes breathing possible
 Formation of blood cells
 Stores calcium and phosphorus within the bones

15. HUMAN SKELETON
 2 main parts
Axial
skeleton
Human
skeleton
Appendicular
skeleton

16. AXIAL SKELETON
Vertebral
column
(spine)
Skull Rib cage
Axial
skeleton

17. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Appendicular
skeleton
Upper limb Lower limb
Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle
(Fore limb) (Hind limb)
Arm Hand
Upper arm
Forearm

18. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Pectoral girdle (consists of two halves) and each
half consists of:
o A scapula (shoulder blade)
o A clavicle (collar bone)
 Pelvic girdle (hips)
 Two upper limbs, each limb consists of:
o Arm (upper arm and forearm)
o Hand
 Two lower limbs, each limb consist of :
o Femur ( thigh bone)
o Tibia
o Fibula (thin bone)
o Foot

19. HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

20. THE AXIAL SKELETON (SKULL)
 Skeleton of the head
 Consists of :
 Cranium
 Facial skeleton

21. SKULL (CRANIUM)
 Dome-shaped
 Formed from the fusion of sutures (immovable
joints found only between skull bones) of 8 flat
bones soon after birth
 Protects the brain
 Supports organs of special senses
(sight, hearing, smell, and taste)
 Provides a foundation for structures to take air, food
and water into the body

22. SKULL (FACIAL SKELETON)
 Consists of 14 bones
 Example:
 2 eye sockets (orbits) – which protect the eyeballs
 2 nasal bones – which form the bridge of the nose
 Upper jaw bone (maxilla) – which is fused to the base of
the cranium
 Lower jaw bone (mandible) – which is hinged to the
cranium

23. AXIAL SKELETON (VERTEBRAL COLUMN)
 Also known as the backbone or the spine
 Consists of a series of 33 small bones (vertebrae)
 Provides protection for the spinal cord which runs
through it
 Intervertebral cartilage disc:
 Separates adjacent vertebrae
 Acts as a shock-absorbing cushion; reduces friction and
allows movement between adjacent vertebrae

24. AXIAL SKELETON (VERTEBRAL COLUMN)
 33 vertebrae of the vertebral column are made up
of:
 7 cervical (cervix=neck) vertebrae in the neck region
 12 thoracic vertebrae in the thorax region
 5 lumbar vertebrae – supporting the lower back
 5 sacral vertebrae – fused to form a single sacrum
 4 caudal vertebrae – fused to form a single coccyx

25. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

26. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

27. VERTEBRAL COLUMN (A TYPICAL VERTEBRA)
Common characteristics of a typical vertebra
 A centrum- body of the vertebra
 A neural arch (vertebral arch)- protects the spinal cord
 A neural canal (vertebral canal)- carries the spinal cord
 Transverse process- for attachment of muscle

28. THE TYPICAL VERTEBRA

29. THE CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
 3 types
 Atlas – first cervical vertebra
 Axis – second cervical vertebra
 Typical cervical vertebra
 All cervical vertebrae have
 1 neural canal – the spinal cord passes through this
hole
 2 vertebraterial canals – the vertebral arteries pass
through these holes

30. THE CERVICAL VERTEBRA (ATLAS)

31. THE CERVICAL VERTEBRA (ATLAS)
 1st cervical vertebra
 Supports the head
 Do not have these 3 structures
 Centrum (body)
 Transverse processes
 Neural spine

32. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (AXIS)

33. THE CERVICAL VERTEBRA (AXIS)
 2nd cervical vertebra
 Has centrum and tranverse processes

34. THE 3RD TO 7TH CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
 The smallest and lightest vertebrae
 Have thinner centrum and a smaller neural spine
 Transverse process has a vertebrarterial canal

35. THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE

36. THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE
 12 thoracic vertebrae
 Larger than the cervical vertebrae
 Increase in size from top to bottom
 Support the rib cage
 A typical thoracic vertebra has
 A heart shaped centrum (body)
 A small circular neural canal
 A long neural spine which point downwards
 2 long transverse processes with facets on top fitting
into facets on the bottom of the upper vertebra
 Neural spine and the transverse processes –for
attachment of ligaments and muscles supporting the
head and neck

37. THE LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

38. THE LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
 5 lumbar vertebrae
 Kidney shaped
 The largest vertebrae found
 Provides the only support to the upper body
 Triangular spinal canal
 Large broad transverse processes
 Short broad neural spine

39. SACRUM AND COCCYX

40. SACRUM & COCCYX
 Sacrum
 Triangular bone formed by the fusion of 5 sacral
vertebrae
 4 transverse lines indicates the fusion of the vertebrae
 On both sides of the transverse lines are paired sacral
foramina (openings)
 Coccyx
 Triangular bone formed by the fusion of 4 caudal
vertebrae

41. RIB CAGE (AXIAL SKELETON)

42. AXIAL SKELETON (RIB CAGE)
 12 pairs
 Articulate with the thoracic vertebrae
 7 upper ribs directly join the sternum by cartilage at
the end of the ribs
 Next 3 ribs (8th,9th,10th) attach to the rib cage above
cartilage
 The bottom remaining 2 ribs are not connected to
sternum or rib cage (called ‘floating ribs’)

43. RIB CAGE
 Functions:
 Protect vital organs (eg: lung, heart)
 Attachment of intercostal muscles
 Provides the pumping mechanism required for breathing

44. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 The components are
 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle
 Upper limb
 Lower limb

45. APPENDICULAR SKELETON (PECTORAL
GIRDLE)
 Contains 2 bones
 Clavicle (collar bone)
 Scapula (shoulder blade)

46. PECTORAL GIRDLE
 Clavicle
 Long,flat,gently curved bone
 Articulates with the shoulder at one end and with the
scapula at the other end
 Scapula
 Flat triangular shaped bone with a spine at its dorsal
surface

47. APPENDICULAR SKELETON (PELVIC GIRDLE)

48. PELVIC GIRDLE
 Strong, bony structure, supporting the upper body
(trunk) & transmitting its weight to the legs
 Formed by a pair of hips
 Each hip bone
 Consists of 3 bones
 ilium
 pubic
 ischium

49. APPENDICULAR SKELETON (UPPER LIMB)
Upper limb (Fore limb)
Arm Hand
Upper arm
Forearm

50. APPENDICULAR SKELETON (UPPER LIMB)

51. UPPER LIMB
 2 upper limb
 Arm
 Upper arm
 Forearm
 Hand
 Attached to the pectoral girdle
 Upper one consists 1 bone
 Humerus
 Forearm consist 2 bones
 Radius
 Ulna

52. UPPER LIMB
 Hand consists of:
 8 carpals
-Arranged in 2 rows of 4 bones each
 5 metacarpals
-Form the palm
 14 phalanges
-Form fingers
-2 phalanges in the thumb
-3 phalanges in the rest of the four other fingers

53. APPENDICULAR SKELETON (LOWER LIMB)

54. LOWER LIMB
 Consists of
 Femur (thigh bone)
 Tibia and fibula
 Foot bones
 Femur
-The longest bone
-Femur,tibia and patella together form the knee joint
-Patella (knee cap) covers the front of the lowest end of
the femur

55. LOWER LIMB
 Foot consists of these bones
 7 tarsal
 5 metatarsals
 14 phalanges

56. MUSCLE
 The most abundant tissues in the human body
 Specialised to be able to contract to produce
movements
 3 main types
 Smooth muscle
 Cardiac muscle
 Skeletal muscle

57. MUSCLE
 Smooth muscle  Cardiac Muscle

58. MUSCLE
 Skeletal muscle

59. SMOOTH MUSCLE
 Spindle-shaped muscle cells with pointed ends
 Each muscle cell has 1 nucleus lying in its centre
 Involuntary muscle (no conscious control over
them)
 Eg: the alimentary canal wall

60. CARDIAC MUSCLE
 Found only in the heart
 Also involuntary muscle

61. SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Also called striated/striped muscle
 Because the presence of alternating light and dark
bands on the muscle fiber
 Voluntary muscle
 Can be made to contract and relax by conscious control
via nervous system

62. SKELETAL MUSCLE (STRUCTURE)
 Made up of long cylindrical cells called muscle
fibres/myofibres
 Each muscle fibre
 Has many nuclei
 Covered by plasma membrane called sarcolemma
 Contains many protein fibers (myofibrils)-contract

63. TENDONS & LIGAMENTS

64. TENDONS & LIGAMENTS
Tendons
 A cord of dense connective tissue made up of
strong & inelastic collagen fibres
 Connects muscle tissue to bones or cartilage
Ligaments
 Made of collagen fibres containing an elastic
protein
 Strong and elastic
 Holding bones together at a joint & preventing them
from being dislocated

65. COMPARISONS BTW TENDONS & LIGAMENTS
 Similarities
 Connect 2 types of tissues together
 Made of collagen tissue
Tendons Aspect of Ligaments
Comparison
Muscle to bone Types of tissues Bone to bone
connected
Absent Presence of Present
elastin
Inelastic Elasticity Elastic

66. CARTILAGE & SYNOVIAL FLUID JOINTS
 Joints
 Found in the skeleton where bones meet
 Divided into 3 groups
 Immovable (fixed joints) eg: sutures (skull)
 Slightly movable eg: joints between adjacent centra of
the vertebral column
 Freely movable (synovial joints) eg: hip & knee

67. CARTILAGE & SYNOVIAL FLUID JOINTS
Cartilage
 In moveable joints, smooth muscle covers the bone
surfaces
 Reduces the friction between articulating bone
structures
Synovial fluid
 Secreted by the surrounding synovial membrane
 Lubricates the joint & nourishes the surrounding
cartilage

68. CARTILAGE & SYNOVIAL FLUID JOINTS
Synovial joints
 Articulating bone ends
 Surfaces are separated by a fluid-filled space
(synovial joint)
 Classified according
 The ball & socket joints (at the shoulders & the hips
) which allow freedom of movement in any plane
 The hinge joints ( at the elbows & the knees) which
allow movement only in one plane

69. HOW MOVEMENT IS BROUGHT ABOUT IN A LIMB
(MOVEMENT IN THE UPPER LIMB: ELBOW JOINT)
 Flexion = bending of hinge joint
 Extension = straightening of hinge joint
 Muscle causes flexion = flexor
 Muscle cause extension = extensor
 In the elbow hinge joint, 2 sets of muscle
 Biceps muscle
 Triceps muscle

70. HOW MOVEMENT IS BROUGHT ABOUT IN A LIMB
(MOVEMENT IN THE UPPER LIMB: ELBOW JOINT)
Biceps muscle
 Lies in front of the humerus, forms the flexor
 Connected to the scapula (point of origin) by 2
tendons at its upper end
 Connected to the radius of the forearm (point of
insertion) by a single tendon at its lower end

71. HOW MOVEMENT IS BROUGHT ABOUT IN A LIMB
(MOVEMENT IN THE UPPER LIMB: ELBOW JOINT)
Triceps muscle
 Lies behind the humerus , forms the extensor
 Connected to the scapula & the humerus (points of
origin) by 3 tendons at its upper end
 Inserted to (olecranon process of)the ulna at its
lower end

72. HOW MOVEMENT IS BROUGHT ABOUT IN A LIMB
(MOVEMENT IN THE UPPER LIMB: ELBOW JOINT)
 Biseps & triceps muscles form an antogonistic pair
 Flexion occurs when biceps muscle contracts &
triceps muscle relaxes causing the forearm to bend
at the elbow, pulling it towards the scapula
 Extension occurs when the triceps muscle contracts
and the biceps muscle relaxes causing the
extension of the forearm at the elbow

73. HOW MOVEMENT IS BROUGHT ABOUT IN A LIMB
(MOVEMENT IN THE UPPER LIMB: ELBOW JOINT)

74. HOW MOVEMENT IS BROUGHT ABOUT IN A LIMB
(MOVEMENT IN THE LOWER LIMB: KNEE JOINT)
 Body moves forward by pushing each foot
downwards and backwards against the ground one
after another