Civil Engineering

1. M.Z jamali
Second term first year

2. Surveying and leveling-I

3. – Specific Objectives of Course:
– To enable students to understand theory and practice of
land surveying.
– To enable students in reading and preparing surveying
maps.
– To develop skills to use modern survey instruments.

4. Surveying
– Surveying is the art of finding the relative positions of different features
above, on or beneath the surface of the earth by taking measurements of
Horizontal distances, vertical directions and angles, and finally
representing them as plans, maps and sections.
– Surveying is the first step for the execution of any project and the success
of any engineering project depends upon the accurate and complete
survey work.
– The application of surveying requires the knowledge of mathematics,
physics and. To some extent, astronomy

5. Leveling
– Branch of surveying which deals only with the measurement
of relative heights of different points on, above or below the
surface of the earth is called leveling. Thus in leveling, the
measurements are taken in the vertical plane only.

6. Objective of Surveying
– Basic objective of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to show
the relative positions of the objects on the surface of the earth,
also compute areas and volumes, lay out of engineering
works using survey data and checking accuracy of laid
out work
– The map or plan is drawn to some suitable scale. It also shows
boundaries of districts, states, and countries too. It also includes
details of different engineering features such as buildings, roads,
railways, dams, canals etc.

7. – Collect and record data of points on the surface of the
earth
– Compute areas and volumes
– Prepare plans and maps
– Lay out engineering works using survey data
– Check the accuracy of laid out works

8. Objective of Surveying

9. Applications/uses of surveying
– To prepare the topographical map which shows hills, rivers, forests,
valleys, etc.
– To prepare the engineering map showing engineering details like
highways, railways, canals, dams, reservoirs, etc.
– To prepare archeological map showing the places where ancient relics
may have lied.
– To prepare cadastral map showing boundaries of properties like houses,
buildings, fields, colonies, etc.
– To prepare a military map showing different strategic points important
for the defense of a country. etc

10. Principles of Surveying
– The fundamental principle upon which the various
methods of plane surveying are based can be stated
under the following two aspects.
– (1)Working from whole to parts.
– (2)Location of a point by measurement from two points
of reference

11. Working from whole to part
– According to this principle, it is always desirable to
carryout survey work from whole to part. This
means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a
system of control points is to be established
covering the whole area with very high precision.
Then minor details are located by less precise
methods.

12. – The idea of working this way is to prevent the
accumulation of errors and to control and
localize minor errors which, otherwise, would
expand to greater magnitudes if the reverse
process is followed, thus making the work
uncontrolled at the end.

13. 2)Location of a point by measurement
from two points of reference
– According to this principle, the relative position of a
point to be surveyed should be located by measurement
from at least two points of reference, the positions of
which have already been fixed.

14. If P and Q are the two
reference points on the
ground, any other point,
such as R, can be located by
any of the direct methods
shown in the figures.

15. Classification of surveying
– Primary classification
– (a) plane surveying
– (b) Geodetic surveying
– Secondary classification
– (a) Based on Methods
– (b) Based on nature of field
– (c) Based on Purpose
– (d) Based on instruments

16. Primary classification
– (a) plane surveying
– Surveys in which the earth surface is assumed to be plane and the
curvature of the earth is ignored are known as plane surveys. Surveys
covering an area up to 250 𝑘𝑚2 may be treated as plane surveys.
– It is to be noted that the difference in length between the arc and, the
subtended chord on the earth surface for A distance of 18.2 km is only
0.1 m.
– Plane surveys are used for the layout of highways, railways, canals,
fixing boundary pillars, construction of bridges, factories, etc

17. Branches of plane Surveying
– Chain Surveying
– Traverse surveying
– Plane Table surveying
– Ordinary Leveling

18. (b) Geodetic surveying
– The surveys in which the curvature of the earth is taken
into account and higher degree of accuracy in linear and
angular observations is achieved, are k
– The geodetic surveys extend over large areas and lines
connecting any two points on the surface of the earth
are treated as arcs. It is also called trigonometric surveys.
– Geo survey is conducted for area larger than 250 km2.

19. Branches of Geodatic Surveying
– Triangulation
– Tacheometric surveying
– Photographic surveying
– Reciprocal Leveling
– Astronomical surveying.

20. Secondary classification
– (a) Based on Methods
– (i) Triangulation survey
– Triangulation is a surveying method in which area is divided in number of triangles
and measures the angles in a triangle formed by three survey control points. Using
trigonometry and the measured length of just one side, the other distances in the
triangle are calculated.
– (ii) Traverse Survey
– Survey in a network of connected straight lines whose length and angles are
measured by a chain or tape and by an angle measuring instrument is called traverse
survey.

21. Secondary classification
– (b) Based on nature of field
– (i) Land surveying
– (ii)Marine Surveying
– (iii)Astronomical Surveying
– Land surveying is further divided in
– Topographical surveys: The surveys which are carried out to determine the
natural features of a country such as hills, valleys, rivers, lakes, wooded areas,
etc. and the artificial features such as roads, railways, towns, villages, canals,
buildings, etc. are called topographical surveys.

22. – Cadastral surveys: The surveys which are generally plotted to a larger
scale than topographical surveys and are carried out to determine the
boundaries of fields, houses, estates and other properties are called
cadastral survey.
– City surveys: The surveys which arc carried out for the construction of
roads, parks, water supply system, sewer system and other
constructional works for any developing township arc called city surveys.
The city maps, which arc prepared for the tourists, are known as Guide
Maps.
– (ii) Marine or Navigation Surveys: The surveys which are carried- out to
determine the positions of harbors and the courses of ships are called
marine or navigation surveys.

23. Secondary classification
– (c) Based on Purpose
– Followings are Based on Purpose
– Hydrographic surveying: The surveys which deal with the measurement of water
bodies like seas, rivers, lakes. gulfs, etc. for the purpose of navigation, development
of port facilities, prediction of tides and determination of mean sea level arc called
hydrographic surveys.
– Engineering or Project Surveys: The surveys which are carried out to collect data
for planning, design and construction or an engineering project like highways,
railways, irrigation canals. water supply, sewage disposal. tunnels, dams, reservoirs,
etc. are called engineering or project surveys.

24. – Military or Defense Surveys: The surveys which are carried out for preparation of
maps of the areas of strategic or military importance are called military surveys..
– Mine or Exploratory Surveys: The surveys which are carried out for exploration or
hidden mineral wealth beneath the surface or the ground, i.e., coal, copper, gold
mines, etc. arc called mine surveys. .
– Geological Surveys: The surveys which arc carried out to ascertain the composition of
the earth crust, i.e. different strata or rocks or the earth crust, arc called geological
surveys.
– Archaeological Surveys: The surveys which are carried out to prepare maps of
ancient culture, i.e. antiquities, are called archaeological surveys.
– Reconnaissance Survey: A preliminary survey to inspect the area before the actual
detailed survey to ascertain how the survey works can be executed in the best
possible ways called reconnaissance survey.

25. Secondary classification
– (d) Based on instruments
– Chain/Tape Surveying
– Electronic Distance Machine(EDM) Surveying
– Theodolite surveying
– Tacheomatric Surveying
– Total Station Surveying