1. Running head: GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS
Women, Work, and Poverty: Gender Norms and the Intersectionality of Bias
Max J. Smith
Arizona State University

2. GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS 2
The subsequent readings are annotated bibliographies aimed at providing a collective
vision of the destitution and hardship women face in the market economy; explaining
how the intersectionality of labor, gender, and poverty can be further complicated by
ontological realities of culture, class, ethnicity, age, and or religion. This synopsis is
meant to serve as a brief snapshot of a globally intricate problem..
Goldin, C. (1990). Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of
Women. New York: Oxford University Press. PP (3-11).
Claudia Goldin’s article, “Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History
of Women,” discusses the advancements and detriments of Women in the American labor
force beginning in the early 1800’s. The article addresses multiple reasons why such a
progressive movement occurred, highlighting the industrial revolution and the increase in
white collar employment as major driving factors; showing the connections between
women working in factories during the war as well as growth in education-based jobs to
economical gains for women. She discusses how these connections help to tighten the
wage gap between Men and Women during the turn of the 20th Century a mechanism of
hardship. Following Women’s progressions in the work force Dr. Goldin discusses the
barriers and constraints women faced and still face in the divide between wages. Goldin
touches on two major subjects regarding ill-influence on women in the American
workforce: Social Norms and Job restriction. Goldin shows how social views of women
marginalize them into niche job markets making the net market of jobs for women
lower. Furthermore, the concrete restriction of women to entry-level positions and use of
Marriage bars are discussed as tools to keep women’s wages suppressed as well as keep
 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 

3. GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS 3
them from entering the job market itself. Closing her article she poses reasons to the
inhibiting of social change as it pertains to institutions, expectations, and stereotypes.
Gemelli, M. (2008). Understanding the Complexity of Attitudes of Low-Income Single
Mothers Toward Work and Family in the Age of Welfare Reform. Gender
Issues; Vol. 25, (2)3. PP (5-18).
Marcella Gemelli’s, “Understanding the Complexity of Attitudes of Low-Income
Single Mothers Toward Work and Family in the Age of Welfare Reform,” touches on
welfare mothers living below their means and agents of pro-welfare reform. A large
portion of the article is dedicated to the Marriage Promotion Act, a government program
which appropriates capital to those families with two parents. Through the analysis of
mother’s on welfare, the attitudes of those receiving allocation were polled regarding the
social and economic pressures to get married; often citing a conflict between finding a
“breadwinner” and retaining pride in being a supportive single mother. All of the women
shared a common catch-22 scenario: If they worked too much, they lost time with their
children, and if they worked too little (in order to spend time with their children) they
couldn’t afford to eat or pay vital bills. These mothers’ collective experiences reveals the
intersectionality of racism, classism, and motherhood, revealing the social pressures it
poses to single mothers and their children on welfare. The author closes by telling the
importance of these women’s accounts and the true contradictory nature of welfare
reform. Jobs for those on welfare don’t pay enough to allow living independently and at
the same time the idea of acquiring a “breadwinner” undermines the wages of the other
spouse: another catch-22 scenario. Although Gemelli’s article shows only a few layers of
the welfare system unfold, even at the surface many contradictions within the system
 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 

4. GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS 4
become apparent. Amoh, T. & Matthaei, J. (1996). Race, Gender, and Work: A Multi-
Cultural Economic History of Women in the United States. Boston, MA: South End
Press. PP (11- 28).
Teresa Amoh and Julie Matthaei’s article, “Race, Gender, and Work: A Multi-
Cultural Economic History of Women in the United States,” discusses how race, class
and gender are interconnected and how these standpoints pertain to differentiating
women’s experiences. Teresa and Julie address the historical nature of these factors and
their rooted nature in social creation; meaning, the factors of race, class, and gender are
not biological categories, but instead socially constructed groups. The article is aiming to
show how women’s experiences are different given their gender, race, and class (and how
perception changes under different culture lenses). Certain cultures base labor divisions
on race, while other base it on gender, while others still are based on class or skill. A
commonality amongst these factors is the ‘white pseudo-masculine’ (male dominated)
capitalist market. These social divisions marginalize those subordinate to those in power,
more often than not benefitting white upper-class males. However, because of these
factors, not all women experience the same discrimination in their work force. Example
being - a black masculine woman from the slums has a much different experience than a
white feminine middle-class woman entering the same market. The woman from the
slums is privy to such less than her white counterpart (in terms of resources and ), making
the availability of a job even harder to come by.
Lim, Linda, Y.C. (1983). Capitalism, Imperialism, and Patriarchy: The Dilemma of the
Third-World Women Workers in Multinationals Factories. WOMEN, MEN, and
 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 

5. GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS 5
the International Division of Labor. New York Press: Albany, NY. PP (216-
232).
Lim’s article, “Capitalism, Imperialism, and Patriarchy: The Dilemma of the
Third-World Women Workers in Multinationals Factories” discusses whether the
outsourcing of jobs by multinational corporations to developing countries is beneficial or
detrimental to the women employed. The article begins with a history of outsourcing jobs
from the U.S. in the early 20th century and why labor intensive industries were so readily
outsourced. Showing as time progressed from the 40’s to the 70’s why underdeveloped
countries possessed a perfect environment for the outsourcing of labor-intensive
jobs. Following, she explains the phenomena from both sides of the spectrum – The
Marxist-Economist: A Beneficial View; The Dependency-Theorist: A Detrimental
View. The Marxist-Economist argues that the influence of the developing countries
multinational influence creates an environment of safer labor, more beneficial learning
experience, and better pay (in comparison to local equivalents for women workers). The
Feminist view or Dependency-Theorist view explains the phenomena as an imperialistic
colonization of underdeveloped countries by multinational corporations which suppresses
the underdeveloped country from growing through patriarchy, in turn keeping the
women’s labor force suppressed. Following a brief analysis of these arguments Lim
discusses the role of patriarchy on women in the workforce; giving a brief history of the
subordinating effects of patriarchy in the economy in the capitalist setting. She goes into
depth regarding patriarchy and Imperialism as it applies to the curbing of women’s wages
(compared to their male counterparts). While addressing the positives of the
Multinational Corporate influence on hence countries, Lim also shows how they tend to
 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 

6. GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS 6
keep systems of oppression in place. Lim’s conclusion focuses on a push for change in
helping the women-labor markets of underdeveloped countries improve their well-
being. Stating the current economy structure (within the given underdeveloped country)
would have to be alleviated in addition to the removal of capital-imperialistic
corporations to provide safe haven for women in these labor markets from economic
patriarchy.
Chant, S. (2007). Single-parent families: choice or constraint? The formation of female-
headed households in Mexican shanty towns. Durham: Duke University Press.
PP (360-368).
Sylvia Chant’s article, “Single-Parent Families: Choice or Constraint? The
Formation of Female-Headed Households in Mexican Shanty Towns” approaches the
sizeable minority of single-female headed households in Latin America from a social and
economic paradigm, looking at constraint and privilege within each household; as
compared to their Male Nuclear Family counterpart. In particular, Chant’s conclusions
are drawn from a study done on 244 Household s (Families) in Queretaro, Mexico 167
representing male-head nuclear families and 22 of which representing the single female
parent residences.
The paper first examines two large factors which show intrinsic pluses and
minuses to them: 1.) The large wage gap between Men’s and Women’s wages, focusing
on underpaid women; 2.) The gap in spending patterns between male and female headed
household, focusing on the economic stability of a female headed households. Chant
segway’s into the differences between the management of labor within each dyadic
household. Explaining how in male headed households the division of labor is strict –
 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 

7. GENDER NORMS & THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BIAS 7
men work in the public sphere, and women are most often in the private sphere; whereas
in single female headed homes the division of labor is put mostly upon mother (private
and public) and then the children. Chant points out the reciprocating effects of this labor
division on the socialization of children and the benefits of female headed households in
respect to the male inferiority complex and sibling-parent interaction. The following
section gives cases for why female headed households emerge in such an area where
male headed households are prevalent, pointing out how most women parenting single
did so on their own accord. However, regardless of the woman’s choice to be such, most
single female-headed households reported being better off and more economically stable
as compared to their previously male headed nuclear family. This conclusion is drawn for
a number of reasons: greater economic stability, healthier socialization of children, and
equal division of labor. However, in final she states that this phenomena may only be
occurring on this micro level because homeownership for the poor in Queretaro is readily
available, which allows for greater flexibility (than say someone required to rent
housing).
This synopsis is meant to serve as a brief snapshot of a globally intricate problem. Each
summary is not designed to supplement the cited readings but more so provide a larger
vision of Women’s stance as a muted group within the labor force and market economy.
 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 