Invited talk given at the J-LET (Japan Language Education and Technology) Methodology SIG 3rd Research meeting, Kansai University (Umeda Campus), 10 Dec 2016.

1. Language Motivation:
From the Theoretical
to the Practical
Matthew Apple
Ritsumeikan University
Dept. of Communication

2. Are you WEIRD?
Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratic

3. Are you WEIRD?
“the social psychological
period” (1959-1990)
“The cognitive situated
period” (1990s)
“The process-oriented
period” (2000 ~ )
“Three Phases of L2 Motivation
Research”
(Dörnyei, 2005, pp. 66-67)
Gardner
Deci & Ryan
Dörnyei

4. Are you WEIRD?
“the social psychological
period” (1959-1990)
“The cognitive situated
period” (1990s)
“The process-oriented
period” (2000 ~ )
“Three Phases of L2 Motivation
Research”
Canada
The US
Europe

5. Are you WEIRD?
Motivational theories stem
from those in WEIRD contexts
Cultural assumptions about
educational systems,
language choices, family roles,
self-perceptions

6. • Published in October 2013
• Multilingual Matters
- E. Ushioda
- K. Noels
- T. Yashima
- M. Apple, J. Falout, & G. Hill
- H. Hayashi
- R. Nishida
- K. Irie & D. Brewster
- S. Aubrey & A.G.P. Nowlan
- Y. Munezane
- T. Taguchi
- M. Johnson
- K. Kikuchi
- J Lake
- J. Falout, Y. Fukada, T. Murphey, & T. Fukuda
- R. Nitta
- T. Hiromori
- Y. Nakata

7. • Published in November 2016
• Multilingual Matters
- T. Fellner, M. Apple, & D Da Silva
- P Gobel, S-M Thang, & S. Mori
- T-Y Kim
- H-T Huang & I-L Chen
- S-A Chen
- M. Lopez & R. Gonzales
- M. Ueki & O. Takeuchi
- M. Gu & X. Qu
- A. Padwad & K. Dixit
- Q-M Zhang
- M. Lamb, S. Astuti, & N. Hadisantosa
- N. Rudolph

8. Questions to ponder…
1. What is “motivation”?
2. What are “language motivation theories”?
3. How do we measure motivation?
4. How do we use motivation in class?

9. Motivation explains …
- why a particular activity?
- how long they will persist?
- what effort they invest in it?
1. What is “motivation”?

10. Motivation explains …
- why?
- how long?
- how hard?
1. What is “motivation”?

11. Motivation explains …
- why?
- how long?
- how hard?
Choice
Persisten
ce
Effort
1. What is “motivation”?

12. “[M]otivation can be defined as the dynamically changing
cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs,
coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive
and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are
selected, prioritised, operationalised, and…acted out.”
(Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p.
65)
1. What is “motivation”?

13. “[M]otivation can be defined as the dynamically changing
cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs,
coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the
cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and
desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised, and…acted
out.”
(Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p.
1. What is “motivation”?

14. Motivation is a
dynamic
cumulative
active process
1. What is “motivation”?
(Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p.

15. a. Gardner’s Socioeducational model
b. Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination theory
c. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system
d. Complex dynamic systems and “person-in-situation”
e. Expectancy-value theories
f. Goal-setting theory
g. Self-worth theory
h. Attribution theory
2. What are “language motivation theories”?

16. a. Gardner’s Socioeducational model
b. Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination theory
c. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system
d. Complex dynamic systems and “person-in-situation”
e. Expectancy-value theories
f. Goal-setting theory
g. Self-worth theory
h. Attribution theory
2. What are “language motivation theories”?

17. a. Gardner’s Socioeducational model
b. Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination theory
c. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system
d. Complex dynamic systems and “person-in-situation”
2. What are “language motivation theories”?

18. 2a. The Socioeducational model (AMTB)
Integrativeness
Integrative orientation
Interest in foreign languages
Attitudes toward English-speaking people
Attitudes toward learning situation
English teacher evaluation
English course evaluation
Motivation
Motivational intensity
Desire to learn
Attitudes toward learning English
(Gardner, 1985)
Language anxiety
English class anxiety
English use anxiety
Instrumental orientation Parental encouragement

19. 2a. The Socioeducational model
Integrativeness
Integrative orientation
Interest in foreign languages
Attitudes toward the French
community
Attitudes toward learning
situation
French teacher evaluation
French course evaluation
Motivation
Motivational intensity
Desire to learn
Attitudes toward
learning French
Language anxiety
French class anxiety
French use anxiety
Instrumentality
Aptitude
(Gardner,
2006)
Language Achievement
“Other factors”
Integrativeness
Attitudes toward learning situation
Motivation

20. 2a. The Socioeducational model
(Gardner, 2002)
Integrativeness
Attitudes toward learning situation
Motivation
“Integrative Motivation”

21. 2a. The Socioeducational model
(Gardner, 2002)
Integrativeness
Attitudes toward learning situation
Motivation
“Integrative Motivation”

22. 2a. The Socioeducational model
(Gardner, 2002)
Integrativeness
Attitudes toward learning situation
Motivation
“Integrative Motivation”

23. 2a. The Socioeducational model
(Gardner, 2010, p. 88)
“The construct, , reflects a genuine
interest in learning…for the purposes of
communicating with members of the other language
community…
“In the extreme, this might involve complete
identification with and membership in the other
community…
“…in less extreme form it might simply reflect a
willingness to incorporate behavioral patterns in the
form of the language from the other group…”
Integrativenes
s

24. 2a. The Socioeducational model
(Yashima, 2000)
interest in communicating with
members of the other language
community…
complete identification with and
membership in the other
community…
willingness to incorporate behavioral
patterns in the form of the language
from the other group…”
“Intercultural Friendship”
(Clément & Krudenier, 1983)
“Friendship Orientation”
(Kimura, Nakata, & Okumura, 2001)
“Intrinsic-Instrumental-Integrative Motive”
(Yashima, 2000, 2004)
“International Posture”
“Integrativeness”

25. 2b. Self-determination theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
feeling competent and a sense
of control
leads to internalizing of external
rewards and goals
a series of steps or categories
shows the degree to which
motivation is self-directed
(Deci & Ryan, 2000)

26. 2b. Self-determination theory
feeling competent and a sense
of control
leads to internalizing of external
rewards and goals
a series of steps or categories
shows the degree to which
motivation is self-directed
People have these innate needs:
1. Autonomy
a capacity to choose to engage in certain
activities
2. Competence
an ability to carry out an activity and to rise
to a challenge
3. Relatedness
feeling of security between learner and
others (family, friends, teacher, classmates)
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

27. 2b. Self-determination theory
feeling competent and a sense
of control
leads to internalizing of external
rewards and goals
a series of steps or categories
shows the degree to which
motivation is self-directed
People have these innate needs:
1. Autonomy
a capacity to choose to engage in certain
activities
2. Competence
an ability to carry out an activity and to rise
to a challenge
3. Relatedness
feeling of security between learner and
others (family, friends, teacher, classmates)
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

28. 2b. Self-determination theory
feeling competent and a sense
of control
leads to internalizing of external
rewards and goals
a series of steps or categories
shows the degree to which
motivation is self-directed
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
leads to internalizing of external
rewards and goals
a series of steps or categories

29. 2b. Self-determination theory
(Ryan & Deci, 2002)
Development of internalization of the autonomous self
Identified Regulation
Intrinsic Motivation
Integrated Regulation
External Regulation
Amotivation
Introjected Regulation

30. 2b. Self-determination theory
Intrinsic Motivation
1. Autonomy
2. Competence
3. Relatedness
internalization (self-regulation)

31. 2c. L2 Motivational Self System
• Reconceptualization of integrativeness in terms of L2 self concept
• Three main aspects/components:
1. Ideal L2 Self
2. Ought to L2 Self
3. L2 learning experience

32. • Reconceptualization of integrativeness in terms of L2 self concept
• Three main aspects/components:
1. Ideal L2 Self
2. Ought to L2 Self
3. L2 learning experience
2c. L2 Motivational Self System
The self one desires to become
The self one is obliged to become
The immediate situation

33. • Reconceptualization of integrativeness in terms of L2 self concept
• “Possible selves” (Markus, 1986):
1. Ideal L2 Self
2. Ought to L2 Self
2c. L2 Motivational Self System
“hopes, aspirations, or wishes…”
“someone else’s sense of duties, obligations,
or…
responsibilities….”
(Dörnyei, 2005, p. 13)

34. • People are motivated to reduce the discrepancy between who they currently are
and who they want to be or do not want to be (“self-congruency,” Higgins, 1987)
• “Possible L2 selves” are not motivations but motivators (self-guides)
1. Ideal L2 Self
2. Ought to L2 Self
2c. L2 Motivational Self System
promotion focus — “pulls” toward
prevention focus — “pushes” away

35. • People are motivated to reduce the discrepancy between who they currently are
and who they want to be or do not want to be (“self-congruency,” Higgins, 1987)
• “Possible L2 selves” are not motivations but motivators (self-guides)
1. Ideal L2 Self
2. Ought to L2 Self
• In this theory/model, Ideal L2 Self > Ought to L2 Self
2c. L2 Motivational Self System
promotion focus — “pulls” toward
prevention focus — “pushes” away

36. 2d. CDS and person-in-situation
Dynamic Systems Theory (DST)
Chaos Theory
Complex Systems Theory (CST)
Complex dynamic systems theory is a combination of several
theories from the hard sciences (mathematics/physics):

37. 2d. CDS and person-in-situation
Complex dynamic systems theory as used in L2 motivation studies:
Motivation is individual
- dependent on social context
- interactions between
individual / situation-specific
events as “triggers”
Motivation is dynamic
- responds to “attractors”
- part of a larger system
- not linear
- can be measured (but not easily)

38. 2d. CDS and person-in-situation
Person-in-situation: Everyone is individual
Motivation is individual
- dependent on social context
- individual / situation cannot
be separated
- generalization not possible
Motivation is dynamic
- changes from moment to moment
- cannot be easily captured
- cannot be quantified
(Ushioda, 2009)

39. 2e. Which model/theory should we use?
[A] key question is whether [WEIRD motivational theories] hold for all
ethnic groups (African American, Asian American, Latino, Native
American, etc.) in western cultures as well as in other nonwestern
cultures. It will not be sufficient for future research to just note that
the generalizations do not hold for these different groups or different
cultures, but rather to grapple with when, why, and how they do or do
not hold for the different groups. (Pintrich, 2003, p. 682)

40. “Remember that all models are wrong;
the practical question is how wrong do
they have to be not to be useful.”
2e. Which model/theory should we use?
(Box, 1987, p. 74)

41. 3. How do we measure motivation?

42. Absolutist
Relativist
Universalist
3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

43. Absolutist
Etic approach
Psychological processes are free from culture
Theories can be applied universally
3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

44. Relativist
Emic approach
Psychological processes should only be studied within local
frames of reference
Cross-cultural generation is not possible
3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

45. Universalist
Both etic and emic
Some aspects of psychology are universal
Sociocultural context in which psychological processes occur is
crucial to understanding individual motives and behaviors
3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

46. Absolutist RelativistUniversalist
Socioeducational Complex Dynamic Systems
Self-determination
L2 Motivational Self System
person-in-situation
3b. How do we measure motivation
(redux)?

47. Absolutist
(Likert category) self/other questionnaires, exams, grades
Traditional statistical analyses (ANOVA, regression, path)
Invariant measurement (IRT/Rasch, CFA)
Generalization across sample populations
3b. How do we measure motivation
(redux)?

48. Relativist
Open-response questionnaires, interviews, diaries, observations
Intrinsic case studies, narratives, ethnographies, action
research
Grounded theory, coding, “retrodictive qualitative modeling”
Rejection of group means and cross-context generalizability
3b. How do we measure motivation
(redux)?

49. Universalist
Mixed methods (Creswell & Clark, 2011):
Convergent parallel, explanatory sequential, exploratory sequential,
embedded, transformative, multiphase
Can be time-consuming, complicated, difficult to publish…
Need for multiple research partners with multiple fields of expertise
3b. How do we measure motivation
(redux)?

50. Hierarchical linear modelling / Latent growth curve modeling
Social network analysis
Bayesian cognitive modeling
Q Methodology
(Quantum cognition?)
3c. How could we measure motivation?

51. “How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”
4. How do we use motivation in class?

52. “How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”
4. How do we use motivation in class?
“How can I get my
students to do what I
tell them to do?”

53. “How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”
4. How do we use motivation in class?
The quick answer:

54. “How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”
4. How do we use motivation in class?
You can’t.

55. “How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”
4. How do we use motivation in class?
You can’t…but…

56. 4. How do we use motivation in class?
“How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”
You can’t…but…
…you can help to set the conditions
in which motivation can arise…

57. Creating the basic
motivational conditions
Generating initial motivation
Maintaining & protecting
motivation
Encouraging positive
retrospective self evaluation
(Dörnyei, 2001)
(Hiromori, 2013)
4. How do we use motivation in class?
“How can I motivate
my students to study
English?”

58. 4a. “Motivational interventions”
1. Set a personal example with your own behavior
2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom
3. Present the tasks properly
4. Develop a good relationship with the learners
5. Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence
6. Make the language classes interesting
7. Promote learner autonomy
8. Personalize the learning process
9. Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness
10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture
(Dörnyei & Csizér, 1988)

59. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on English for Specific Purposes for future needs
3. Introduce L2 English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware of changes in students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection
(Based on studies in Apple et al, eds., 2013)

60. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on ESP for future needs
3. Introduce non-native English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware that students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection

61. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on English for Specific Purposes for future needs
3. Introduce non-native English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware that students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection

62. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on ESP for future needs
3. Introduce L2 English speakers into your classes
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware that students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection

63. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on ESP for future needs
3. Introduce L2 English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware changes students’ motivation can
change
7. Make use of student reflection

64. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on ESP for future needs
3. Introduce L2 English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware of changes in students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection

65. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on ESP for future needs
3. Introduce L2 English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware of changes in students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection

66. 4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions
1. Make use of project-based learning
2. Focus on ESP for future needs
3. Introduce L2 English speakers
4. Provide effective feedback
5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers
6. Become more aware that students’ motivation
7. Make use of student reflection

67. Final thoughts…from theory to
practice

68. Final thoughts…from theory to
practice

69. Final thoughts…from theory to
practice

70. mapple@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
http://manzano0627.wix.com/ho
me
@manzano0627
http://mthomasapple.com
Language Motivation:
From the Theoretical
to the Practical

71. Thank you!
mapple@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
http://manzano0627.wix.com/ho
me
@manzano0627
http://mthomasapple.com
Language Motivation:
From the Theoretical
to the Practical