REVIEW

1. APPROACHES IN EXTENSION
Extension approach (Axinn, 1988) defined as a style of action, embodying the philosophy of an
extension system which, by and large determines the direction and nature/style of the various
aspects of that system, such as its structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques,
resources, and linkages.
Eight extension approaches commonly practiced by extension organizations all over the world
(Axinn, 1988 and Swamson, 1989, as cited by Cardenas, 2000):
1. General Extension Approach
2. Commodity Specialized Approach
3. Training and Visit Approach
4. Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach
5. Project Approach
6. Farming Systems Development Approach
7. Cost Sharing Approach
8. Educational Institution Approach

2. COMPARATIVE EXTENSION APPROACHES
Extension Approach/
Gen Characteristics
Assumption Purpose Program Planning and
Implementation
Resource
Requirements
Implementation
Strategy
Measure of
Success
1.The General
Extension Approach
 Commonly found in
Government
Ministry/
Department of
Agriculture(MA/DA)
 Implemented by
MA/DA through its
unit/division tasked
to undertake
extension
 Technology and
information areavailable
but not used by farmers
 If the technology is
communicated to the
farmers farm practices
would improve
 Technologies/ inventions
by research institutions
are best for the farmers
 Help farmers
increasetheir
production/
income
through
adoption of
technology.
 Centrally controlled by
government
 :Top-down”
 Priorities are
determined at
national level
 Farmers are generally
not consulted
 Requires a large
number of
government field
personnel
 Field staff are
assigned all over
the country by
political
subdivision
 Methods and
techniques are
generally
standardized
consistingof a
combination of
extension
communication
techniques
 Attainment of
increased farm
production
and family
income
 Better quality
of life
2. The Commodity
Specialized Approach
 Highly specialized
 Tends to focus on
one crop (usually for
export) e.g. coffee,
sugar,rice,etc.
 The way to increase
productivity and
production of a
particularcommodity is
to concentrate on that
crop
 Groupingall functions
related to the crop’s
production under one
administration would be
more effective and
efficient. Such functions
are research,extension,
input supply,output
marketing, and prices
 Increaseboth
quantity and
quality of the
commodity
being
specialized
 Top-down and
controlled by the
commodity
organization
 Governing Board of
the Organization
usually decides on the
extension goals,
messages, scheduleof
activities,staffingand
program participants.
 Requires farmer
cooperators to strictly
followthe
predetermined
packageof
technology.
 Facilities for doing
on-the-spot
demonstration of
technologies
 Highly qualified
scientific and field
personnel
 Credit scheme for
small farmers
 Specialized
extension work
 Trainingof
personnel
 Credit scheme
 Marketing scheme
 Recommended
input made
availableand
affordable
 Closer supervision
 Total
production of
the particular
crop

3. Extension Approach/
Gen Characteristics
Assumption Purpose Program Planning and
Implementation
Resource
Requirements
Implementation
Strategy
Measure of
Success
3.The Training and
Visit Approach (T&V)
 Advocated by the
World Bank in the
1960s
 A system of
technical adviceto
improve agricultural
productivity through
convincingfarmers
adopt a set of
recommended farm
practices
 Extension field
personnel are poorly
trained, not up-to-date,
and stay in officerather
than visitthe farmers.
 Management and
supervision not
adequate
 Induce farmers
to increase
their
production of
specified crops
 Improve
contacts
between
extension staff
and farmers,
extension staff
and
researchers.
 Top-down centrally
controlled
 Decisions about
educational messages,
how and when it
should be taught are
done by professionals
and carried out down
to the organizational
hierarchy.
 Manpower
requirement is high
 Costs are high
 Frequent and
regular in service
trainingof lower
level extension
staff by subject
matter specialist
 Fixed scheduleof
extension agents’
visitto farmer
groups
 Two-step Flowof
communication
Field staff
Contact farmers
Group of farmers
 Increasein
yield and total
production of
crops being
emphasized
 Improved
communicatio
n flow
4. The Participatory
Agricultural
Extension Approach
 Groups such as
farmers’ association
and other
stakeholders in the
community
influenceand
exercisegreater
control of extension
priorities and
activities
 Local Government
Units
 Farmers have much
wisdom about
production of food from
their land
 Farmers’ own knowledge
can be improved
through learningfrom
outsidetheir own
knowledge system such
as research and related
services
 Effective extension
cannot be achieved
without farmers’
participation
 There is reinforcing
effect in group
learning/action
 Increase
production
and
consumption
 Produce more
relevant
messages to
various
stakeholders
 Enhance
quality of life
of rural people
 Improve
efficiency and
effectiveness
of agricultural
extension
 Controlled locally by
such groups as
farmers associations
and other
stakeholders
 Extension personnel
assists facilities
 Plans/programs may
be partof the Local
Development Plan
 Entails lower costs.
High proportion of
resources may be
provided locally
through sharing
among
stakeholders
 Extension
messages are
location specific
 Active participation
of farmers and
other stakeholders
 Extension
personnel serve as
facilitators
 Local sharingof
technologies and
other resources
 Shared decision
makingthrough
meetings
 Group learning
through farmers’
class,
demonstrations,
study tours,etc.
 Number of
farmers and
stakeholders
participating
 Sustainability
of group
activities/decis
ion making

4. Extension Approach/
Gen Characteristics
Assumption Purpose Program Planning and
Implementation
Resource
Requirements
Implementation
Strategy
Measure of
Success
5.The Project
Approach
 Extension Services
are concentrated in
a particular location
 Infusion of large
amount of external
resources/ foreign
donors private
organization
 Large government
bureaucracy in the
regular ministry of
Agricultural Extension
Services may not be
capableto bringabout
increasein agricultural
production or rural
development within an
appropriatetime frame.
 To
demonstrate
what can be
done in a few
years/short
period of time.
 Central government
controls program
planning
 Donors generally have
strong control
 Bigger budget
compared to
regular extension
program
 Transportation and
facilities
 Project allowances
for field staff
 Transportation,
facilities,
equipment and
sometimes housing
 Short run
change
6.The Farming Systems
Research Extension
(FSRE) Approach
 People-centered,
problem-oriented,
holistic participatory
and inter-
disciplinary in
evolvinglocation
specific technologies
 Technologies are
generated locally
 A farmer-back-to-
farmer mode of
research-extension
 Technologies that fit the
needs and circumstances
of the farmers arenot
availableand thus have
to be generated locally
 Farmers’ problems
needs and circumstances
are the key to the
generation of
appropriatetechnology
 Provide
extension
personnel (and
through them,
the farm) with
the
appropriate
technologies
 Plans and implement
are evolved in the
process and may be
different for each
agro-climatefarm
ecosystem type
 Farmers and the team
of researchers and
extension workers
control the program
jointly
 Interdisciplinary
experts in research
and extension
 Budgetary
requirement
 Field personnel are
highly specialized
 Farmers participate
actively in
partnership with
the
interdisciplinary
team of
researchers and
extension workers
 Systems approach
in terms of
situation analysis,
design of
intervention,
experimentation,
etc.
 Extent of
adoption of
the process
and the
technologies

5. Extension Approach/
Gen Characteristics
Assumption Purpose Program Planning and
Implementation
Resource
Requirements
Implementation
Strategy
Measure of
Success
7.The Cost Sharing
Approach
 Joint venture
between the
community and an
institution
(GO/NGO) in the
utilization and
complementation of
resources
 Non-formal education
program is easily
achieved if beneficiaries
sharethe cost
 Locals may not be able
to sufficiently support
their own development
efforts. Thus, outside
sources should
supplement/
compliment.
 Personnel may perform
better if beneficiaries
sharethe cost.
 Increased
productivity
 Help farmers
help
themselves/
teach them
self-reliance
 Shared by
stakeholders who
contributed in the
cost, but must be
responsiveto local
needs to assure
sustained cooperation
from the locals
 Resources required
from government
is less
 Field personnel
tend to be
recruited locally
and remain in the
project area for a
longperiod of time
 Farm people’s
willingnessand
ability to
sustainability
sharein the
cost
8.The Educational
Institution Approach
 Extension done by
an academic
institution
 Agricultureeducational
institutions have
technical knowledge
relevant to the farm
people
 Help farmers
learn about
scientific
agriculture
 Provide
opportunity
for students
and faculty
interactwith
farmers and
experience
actual
agriculture
 Generally controlled
by those who design
the curriculumof the
educational institution
 Control may shiftfrom
the institution to the
people (if participatory
extension)
 Cost may be high
but if collaborative
approach is
employed then it is
shared among
them
 Non-formal
institution by
groups or
individuals
 A variety of
approaches/
techniques may be
designed
depending on the
philosophy
followed/ tried by
the institution
 Extension
personnel from
other agency may
be involved
 Attendance
and extent of
participation
of the farm
people