06 tp6 waste management

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A Project Co- funded by European
Union and the Government of Egypt
Waste Management 1
Assistance to the Reform of the TVET System
ETP – Chemical Industries
Waste Management
in context
Training package 6:
Waste management in context
Group targeted: lab staff, quality control staff and
production engineers
Duration 5 days in 2 Modules
Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Heinz Muschik
Approved for Vocational Training in Polymer Technology
by LKT - Laboratorium für Kunststofftechnik GmbH.
Center of Competence in Polymer and Environmental Engineering
Wexstrasse 19-23
A-1200 Vienna / Austria

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Acknowledgment
I gratefully thank the companies STARLINGER, NGR and EREMA and
Mr. Matthew Lamb for their valuable contributions and Mr. Harald Vock
for his friendly assistance in the design of this Training Package
Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Heinz Muschik
Module
name
Module contents/aim of
training
Reference
to lecture
notes
Duration Total
duration
Theoretical Practical
Module
1
According
to the
content
lecture
notes
3 days 3 days
Module
2
According
to the
content
lecture
notes
-- 2 days 5 days

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Content page
1. Introduction to waste management and environmental aspects .................... 4
2. Agenda 21- a proactive framework for handling public problems in waste
management and environmental issues ...................................................... 5
2.1. Local Agenda 21 (LA21) ..............................................................5
2.2. Denmark a positive example for LA21 ........................................... 12
3. Waste collection........................................................................... 15
3.1. Actual item status quo ............................................................. 15
3.2. Collecting systems .................................................................. 18
3.3. Austrian Recycling Agency (ARA) ................................................. 19
4. Polymer Recycling Technology .......................................................... 27
4.1. General remarks .................................................................... 27
4.2. How to identify different plastics ................................................ 30
4.2.1. Identification of plastics by fire performance and density/1st approach
................................................................................... 31
4.2.2. Solubility........................................................................ 34
4.2.3. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy [2] ............................................... 35
4.2.4. Thermal analysis [2]........................................................... 37
4.3. Sorting methods..................................................................... 41
4.3.1. Sorting in companies .......................................................... 41
4.3.2. Sorting of polymers from public waste..................................... 41
4.4. Machinery for plasticizing to granules ........................................... 44
4.4.1. PET to PET (PET2PET)......................................................... 44
4.4.2. Machinery for edge trim and film on reels................................. 54
5. Recycling- when do we see a financial benefit ? ..................................... 58
6. Application of recycled material........................................................ 61
7. Literature................................................................................... 62

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1. Introduction to waste management and environmental
aspects
Industrial production serving cheap products has allowed millions of people to
improve their living compared to former times.
Nevertheless, in the meantime, the blessing of cheap mass production contributes to
the development of a global problem which is transforming this blessing into the
opposite.
Meanwhile the disposal costs (if properly disposed of) are dramatically higher than
the production costs themselves. Most products in the majority of countries are not
properly disposed of and have already caused environmental catastrophes (air,
water, districts) harming their inhabitants in numerous ways ranging from crippling
illnesses to death. There exist huge areas where normal human life will not be
possible for thousands of years (e.g. Seveso/Italy, Tschernobil/Ukraina, Bopal/India)
Because everybody is effected, everybody is also responsible to help
overcome these problems.
As we can read in the Holy Koran of the Muslims: (Kalif Sure 2, 30;
27, 62; 31, 20; Sure 21, 23)
as well as in the Holy Testament of Jews and Christians (Genesis, 1
& 2) that the world is given to the people by God and they are
responsible for this gift and he will call them to account.
Public problems regarding waste management and environmental
issues are - generally speaking – more often a problem of
communication between the partners concerned rather than a
technical problem.

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2. Agenda 21- a proactive framework for handling public
problems in waste management and environmental issues
In 1987 sustainable development was put on the international agenda with the
Brundtland report using the slogan – “Think globally, act locally”.
The Agenda 21 is a document which was developed at the international conference
for environment and development in Rio de Janeiro 1992 and was signed by 187
states declaring their self commitment to the concept of sustainable development.
In 1992 world leaders recommended that local authorities work with citizens in
creating Local Agenda 21 as part of the world summit on environment and
development in Rio de Janeiro, and the need for local commitment was reinforced
at the second summit in Johannesburg in 2002. Each individual is responsible for
taking part in the solution to global problems – in our work and in our private lives,
not because of legal requirements but for moral reasons. We should not destroy the
world that our children shall live in. To solve present environmental problems calls
for actions in our everyday life.
2.1. Local Agenda 21 (LA21)
Overview of possible course on Local agenda 21 / Community development at a local
level
“Think globally, act locally”
What is it?
Basically Local Agenda 21 is about making a sensible plan for a way forward at a
local level. This plan should then form the basis for a region, municipality or
community to decide upon and implement a series of actions suited to its needs.
Local Agenda 21 can be seen as the making and carrying out of a plan at a local level
in order to achieve a development which is more sustainable. This usually involves a
process which is made up of a series of actions or projects. At both planning and
action level, the participation of all actors involved is essential. Agenda 21 is “the

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blueprint for Sustainability” and gives ordinary people, citizens, local people and
communities, the right to have a say in how our environment is managed and
protected. It gives meaning to the terms 'local democracy' and 'local government'. The
sustainable use of the planet’s resources will require a multitude of actions at the
different levels: global, regional and local. On the other hand, the environmental and
socio-economic impacts of human activities may happen at global, regional and local
scales. For instance, a soil pollution accident impacts the local level; unemployment is
generally a regional issue; as for climate change, it is a global phenomenon. Those
actions that are initiated at a higher level (e.g. governmental and intergovernmental
initiatives) and trigger actions at a lower level (e.g., municipal or business initiatives)
are known as top-down actions. On the other hand, those actions initiated at the
micro, local or regional level are designated as bottom-up actions. It is abundantly
clear that sustainable development requires both top-down and bottom-up actions
which must be integrated effectively or neither will work well. Local Agenda 21
consists of projects that aim at improving the quality of life of local communities. Such
projects can – and should – tackle local sustainable development issues, as well as
the global ones, such as climate change.
Figure: the top-down, bottom-up interactions of Local Agenda 21
We can say that “Local Agenda 21” is the model approach towards the
implementation of Sustainable Development at a communal and regional level. While
not seeking to replace existing approaches, it is understood as an integration and

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networking tool. Agenda 21 is a global action plan for sustainable development and
Local Agenda 21 is local action plan for sustainable development. It aims to meet the
following 3 criteria:
• Action plan
• Citizen involvement
• Awareness about Sustainable development
Worldwide as of 2002, Local Agenda 21 has been implemented over 6,416 times in
113 countries; Europe-wide, there are so far 5,300 Agenda 21 municipalities and
regions (ICLEI, 2002).
History
Local Agenda 21 is first mentioned in Chapter 28 of Agenda 21, the United Nations'
document agreed by world leaders in 1992 to promote the principle of sustainable
development. It calls upon all local authorities/municipalities world-wide to draw up
and implement local plans of action for sustainable development, in partnership
with all stakeholders in the local community. Internationally over 2,000 local
authorities in 64 different countries are already engaged in the process, and of these
about 1,000 are in Europe.
Getting the idea
A local Agenda 21 process is designed to be holistic but, for the purposes of
illustration, possible activities as part of a local agenda 21 process might be
undertaken in areas like this (special seminars can be prepared):
 Local infrastructure / transport
 Waste management
 Energy
 Education on all levels
 Public procurement
 Housing
 Parks
 Culture
 Youth activities
 Older generations
 Employment
 Land use

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Why?
Too often there are hundreds of chances and possibilities which are missed that
could improve the standard of living and the sustainability of this standard of living
on a local level. As well as the need for
money and resources, these chances are
often missed due to lack of knowledge or
the lack of communication between people
who might be able to do something. Often
the most important first step is to find out
what already exists and make all the
relevant actors (stakeholders) aware of
this.
In many cases it is a local problem which generates enough pressure for a
municipality to start a local agenda process. A simple example would be that all the
young people are leaving a rural municipality to move to the large urban areas
where employment opportunities are apparently better. The municipality is then in
danger of becoming a “ghost town” with the older generation sinking into increased
isolation and unable to motivate itself to do anything. Starting a local agenda
process has proved itself to be one way to regenerate local pride, using the
collective energy to improve the status quo and provide incentives for the young
people to remain in the area.
Who?
Whatever the motivating factor behind the initiation of a local agenda 21 process is
it must have a critical mass of stakeholders willing to or interested in participating.
It must be based on a free and open dialogue between those involved.
%
Example: A farmer has a small
incineration plant situated at the edge of
his land for burning the waste from his
crops. 300 metres away over the road
there is the main headquarter of the local
stone and gravel transport company. Once
the information was shared it was very
simple to use the heat generated from the
incineration plant to heat the offices of
the transport company simply by piping it
under the road 300 metres. – Everybody
wins!

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Agenda 21 recognises that local
authorities/municipalities have a crucial role to
play in sustainable development because they:
• Represent and work on behalf of the local
community;
• Have a significant planning role;
• Carry out, commission or influence many of the
services on which local quality of life depends;
• Manage/own large parts of the built and natural
environment;
• Can greatly influence others through education,
advice, information and example;
• Can catalyse partnerships with other
organisations;
• Have large direct impacts as substantial
consumers, purchasers and employers.
Most important of all, democratically accountable
local government is the pivotal point where the
community's views, values and aspirations can be
translated into projects, policies, plans and
programmes, and thus given practical effect.
Local Agenda 21 is about realising sustainability
and should not be seen as a distraction from „real‟
work - it is where „real‟ work should begin and
end.
Source: CEMR Local Agenda Basic Guide
Local authorities principally form the
hub for the whole process and
political backing is vital to its success.
Once the decision is taken to
implement a local agenda 21 process
it is then important to win the local
community with a view to analysing
the status quo regarding:
 What have WE got?
 What do WE want?
 How do WE get there?
 With what?
 Who does it?
Local Agenda 21 forms the framework for a community itself to undertake actions to
improve its own lot.
Actions will differ based on local resources and needs. The dialogue between the
local actors is the key to identifying the best local solutions. Openness, dialogue and
cooperation are the core means of developing a Local Agenda 21. Examples include
tenant associations initiating waste sorting and common composting, the school class
working on ways to reduce water and energy consumption at school, the
kindergarten converting to organic food and involving parents in mutual
procurement, local citizen groups getting support for restoring a local water stream,
small forest, or limiting through traffic, local industry working together in industrial
symbiosis using waste from one industry as raw material in the next etc.

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Another exemplary initiative involved a Danish
island making the collective decision to convert
totally to renewable energy within a period of
10 years. This initiative was designed to ensure
the survival of the island‟s economy, create a
wide range of new jobs, boost the local
economy as well as achieve energy
independence in way that is CO2 neutral. With
an initial outlay of some € 45, the inhabitants of
the island aimed at energy autonomy using a
mixture of off-shore wind turbines and small
scale biomass combustion units for remote
heating. An inspirational combination of
renewable energy solutions which was initiated
by the citizens themselves. More can be read at
www.veo.dk
How?
There is no set way in which to initiate
and carry out a local agenda 21. A lot
depends on political, cultural, social
and geographic conditions. Any local
agenda 21 initiative will obviously have
to fit local conditions, making it doubly
important that a wide spectrum of
stakeholders be included in the whole
process. There is no purpose in starting
something if it is neither needed nor
desired.
While individual project initiatives make it easy to get an idea of what local agenda
21 is, it has proved very important to build a “local agenda 21 organisation” to
support and ensure the continuity of the whole process. This organisation can form
an important interface between local government and the numerous other
stakeholders as well as creating employment opportunities. Not only can this
organisation contribute to the improvement of the local authority and its own
performance in terms of sustainability, act as a hub for the generation and
implementation of ideas, initiatives and activities, but it should also play a critical
role in the measuring, monitoring and review of the process as a whole with a view
to achieving continuous improvement.
The Process
The following list shows four main groups of tasks which are applicable when
starting out with a local agenda 21 process It should be quite clear that all tasks are
interlinked and that there is no particular order prescribed within each group.
Nevertheless, it was possible to say that, generally speaking, the four areas: PLAN,
IMPLEMENT, EVALUATE AND REVIEW comprise a cyclic process which, once started,
may or may not always continue “on the same road”. At a micro level, for example,
the stakeholders may decide that a project is completed and therefore there is no

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continuation, nevertheless the process as a whole should always be subject to
continuous improvement.
PLAN Review the status quo
Create awareness, motivation &
commitment
Generate funding
Build an organisational structure
Define stakeholders
Develop vision, mission & strategy
Define priority issues, objectives &
success criteria
Define targets & projects
Decision making
IMPLEMENT Manage funding
Marketing
Encourage participation
Communication internally and
externally
Implement projects & actions
Disseminate experiences &
outcomes
EVALUATE Monitoring results of processes and
projects
Assessing qualitative result
(objectives)
Assessing quantitative results
(targets)
Reporting on results
REVIEW Revising vision
Mission & strategy
Redesign of structure &
organisation
Communication of results of review
A valuable and already experienced method to improve the situation is to make use
of “LA21 problem solving methods and activities”: “Training the facilitators for
Local Agenda 21 Implementation” (see www.traintola21.org).
This LA21 method has been developed in a common project achieved by 8 European
countries (Austria, Denmark, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, UK and The
Basque County. The positive results encouraged already many communities to
improve their burdensome situation.

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2.2. Denmark a positive example for LA21
Human beings are at the centre of
concerns for sustainable development.
They are entitled to a healthy and
productive life in harmony with nature.
The right to development must be
fulfilled so as to equitably meet
developmental and environmental needs
of present and future generations. [Rio
Declaration on Environment and
Development]
In spring 2000 the Danish parliament approved a legal requirement in the Law of
Planning for municipalities and counties to develop and revise an Agenda 21 strategy
every fourth year focusing on 5 specific overall issues – and to publish the strategy.
The results of this can be found below under the heading "Statistics".
Every fourth year, the Minister of Environment is obliged to report to the parliament
on the status of Agenda 21. The report has to be prepared in cooperation with the
local and regional authority organisations according to the Law of Planning. The
latest report in Danish can be found on here.
The national framework for Local Agenda 21 is depicted by Denmark's National
Strategy for Sustainable Development. A shared future – Balanced development
(2002), which introduces the overall goals in eight objectives and principles:
 The welfare society must be developed and economic growth must be
decoupled from environmental impacts.
 There must be a safe and healthy environment for everyone, and we must
maintain a high level of protection.
 We must secure a high degree of biodiversity and protect the ecosystems.
 Resources must be used more efficiently.
 We must take action at an international level.
 Environmental considerations must be taken into account in all sectors.
 The market must support sustainable development.
 Sustainable development is a shared responsibility, and we must measure its
progress.

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Running implementations
In this chapter some examples of Local Agenda 21 processes in Denmark can
be found. More examples can be found in the Danish here and Norwegian
idea banks on Local Agenda 21. Unfortunately, the data is not available in
English.
Dogme 2000
Dogme 2000 is an instance of cooperation, currently between six Danish
municipalities having set up a number of common targets for their work
towards a better environment and sustainability. The six Dogme
municipalities are Albertslund, Ballerup, Fredericia, Herning, Kolding and
Copenhagen; also Malmø municipality in Sweden joined the network in
January 2006. The cooperation is led by a steering committee consisting of
politicians and officials from the Dogme municipalities. With all
municipalities cooperating, the officials work to implement the targets of
the Dogme. The example of cooperation is based on 3 "dogmas" (objectives
and means):
Human environmental impacts shall be measured – green accounts
An environmental improvement plan shall be developed - Agenda 21 plan
The environmental work shall be anchored – Business and housing areas shall
be involved and in time the whole municipality shall get environmental
management certification.
Within each "dogma" more specific targets and actions are developed and
these are part of the auditing. An external independent environmental
management systems auditor audits the performance of the municipality
every year.
During a three-year period the Dogme municipalities in Denmark will
develop a Dogme manual that is to serve as an inspiration and ”getting-
started-guide” for Danish and foreign municipalities with an interest in
making an extra effort for the environment as part of a LIFE project. The
manual will, among others, contain a number of concrete tools and methods
that may be used in the efforts for environmental improvements in the

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municipalities.
The four focal points of the Dogme manual are:
 Common model for municipal green accounts.
 Chemicals plan.
 Anchoring of environmental work.
 New audit model for the Dogme.
In addition a project group is working with dissemination of the project.
The LIFE project is to sustain and further develop the Danish Dogme 2000
model for environmental management at municipal level. Work is supported
by funds from the EU Life programme.
In addition to the five Danish municipalities, two external partners are
involved in all the sub-projects: Siualai of Lithuania and Neumünster of
Germany. These two municipalities are to ensure that the Dogme manual is
also applicable outside Denmark.
Eu life project under Dogma 2000
As part of the Dogme 2000 cooperation several working groups have been
established e.g. focusing on environmental work of industry, organic food,
sustainable building, environmental certification of municipalities and
environmental certification of schools.

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3. Waste collection
3.1. Actual item status quo
An important part of the pollution problems comes from plastics applications and
especially from the short life time of consumer plastics e.g. packaging (see next
fig.).
Short life time of plastics in packaging
The European Union now increasingly demands that in all countries they assist the
environmental aspect has to taken into account and result in education programs
and sustainable solutions for the people in those countries.
To get an impression of the small recycled quantity see the next table from the
American Plastics council 2004).
Plastic bottle
type
Resin sold
(Million lb)
Recycled plastic Recycling rate
(%)
PET soft drink
PET custom
1.722
2.915
579,4
424,0
33,7
14,5
Total PET
bottles
4.637 1.003,4 21,6
PE-HD natural
PE-HD
pigmented
1.621
1.865
450,3
453,9
27,8
24,3
Total PE-HD
bottles
3.486 904,2 25,9
PVC
PE-LD/PE-LLD
PP
113
63
190
0,9
0,3
6,0
0,7
0,5
3,2
Total 8.489 1.914,8 22,6

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The numbers presented in the table had remained fairly constant until 2003, when
the rate of recycled resins increased due to the high costs of the virgin material.
This increase continues, and it is expected that this trend will continue in the years
to come.
Approximately 80% of these short life time plastics like bottles, films and ropes for
fishing do not get disposed properly and thereby become a world wide problem.
In many countries the quantities of waste has increased dramatically and exceeded
the feasible public or private disposal management capacity.
Problems arise from lack of organised locations to deposit the waste and increasing
air pollution damages the health of the residents (see next Fig.).
Unorganised “wild” disposal of litter
Many local and small companies collect mono-fractions of polymers for special
customers (see fig.) but this is only a small proportion of the total plastic volume.
By a common EU / Egypt project a new effort in Recycling of Plastics is planned in
Egypt.
An important measure to handle polymers with low life time was to reduce the types
of polymers and the demand to declare the products with international accepted
label (see Fig. / SPI resin identification codes).

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Recycling
number
Image Abbreviation Polymer name
1 PETE or PET Polyethylene terephthalate
2 HDPE High density polyethylene
3 PVC or V Polyvinyl chloride
4 LDPE Low density polyethylene
5 PP Polypropylene
6 PS Polystyrene
7 OTHER 7or O Other plastics
Recycling number (SPI resin identification code) for Polymer characterization
The collection of mono-fraction plastics allows the production of various goods in
sufficient quality (see next Fig.)
Recycling
number
Image Abbreviation Uses once recycled
1 PETE or PET
Soft drink bottles, strapping
Polyester fibres, thermoformed sheet;
See also: Recycling of PET Bottles
2 HDPE
Bottles, grocery bags, recycling bins,
agricultural pipe, base cups, car stops,
playground equipment and plastic lumber
3 PVC or V Pipe , fencing and non-food bottles
4 LDPE
Plastic bags, 6 pack rings, various
containers, dispensing bottles, wash
bottles, tubing and various moulded
laboratory equipment
5 PP
car parts, industrial fibres, food containers
and dishware
6 PS
Desk accessories, cafeteria trays, plastic
utensils, toys, video cassettes and cases,
insulation board and other expanded PS-
products (e.g. Styrofoam)
7 OTHER 7or O
Application of recycled polymers

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3.2. Collecting systems
The following example is taken from Austria and shows a comprehensive public
collecting system for various goods like glass, metal, paper, plastics and the
domestic waste. For the public this system involves containers for collection and
subsequent disposal in special incineration facilities for household litter and public
locations for industrial and hazardous goods.
As mentioned in Chapter 2 it took time for public discussion and decisions to start a
common collecting and subsequent processing system of the various goods organized
by the Austrian Recycling Agency (ARA).
Now there are collecting bins in all districts collecting pins (see below) for special
products like glass, metal, paper, plastic bottles which are regularly emptied and
constantly monitored to ensure that they are in a proper condition.
Educate people how to collect

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The domestic waste (a mixture of biodegradable, inflammable and non inflammable
products) gets burned in newly built incineration facilities (see fig. below).
Incineration facility for household litter
In Europe new incineration facilities are only accepted with defined air pollution
criteria.
An important aspect was and is to motivate people to use these bins so reducing the
effort of the municipalities to keep the public clean. This is done by regularly
actions like public advertisements, inserts in newspapers, TV-spots, school actions,
information for households where to find the next collecting point for various
materials (fridges, furniture, old batteries, chemicals etc.). The fact that all the
people collect and separate reduces the further costs involved.
3.3. Austrian Recycling Agency (ARA)
The ARA is heads the organisation for collecting, storing and delivering of plastics,
metal, paper et al. to the recycling institutions under contract (see fig.).
These contractors are partially public communities or private enterprises like cities,
villages or specialized companies (see fig.).

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ARA System - contractual partners
The cooperation scheme between individual companies dealing with special
polymers and products is to be seen in the following fig.
How the ARA system works
An overview of the Austrian waste volume is to be seen in the following table (see
tab. below)
3 Service-offices457 Municipal
partners
app. 100
Regional partners
250 „Waste
consultants“
app. 140 Regional
collection centers
25 Plastic-
recycling
companies
app. 1,100
recycling plants
10 Paper-
recycling
companies
3 Glass-recycling
companies
4 Metal-recycling
companies
29 Wood-
recycling
companies
4 Aluminium-
recycling
companies

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• Capital: Vienna
• Area: 84.000 km²
• Population: 8,3 mio.
• GNP 20081): 282,2 billion €
• GNP per inhabitant1):
33.820 €
• Household waste (MSW)2):
3,7 mio. tons 29,3 mio. m³
Packaging waste3):
1,1 mio. tons
1) per April 2009; Statistics Austria
2) Federal Ministry of Environment, 2008
3) Federal Ministry of Environment, 2007
Austria: Facts & Figures
The Waste management is classified in a hierarchy (see fig.) starting from
prevention until final treatment of the goods collected.
Hierarchy in Waste Management
The previous Austrian waste management system (next fig. left side)was only
designed to collect the household waste and to deposit it while the current one
selects the type and quality of waste products and separates into stream lines (next
fig. right side).

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Previous system Actual System

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Collection by the population requires motivation; it is a social item depending on
mentality, public awareness and education-
- All the people collecting and separating reduces the further costs,
- It needs education (school, TV-spots, inserts in newspapers, actions) and the
possibility to collect and separate (e.g. public containers available and regularly
emptied).
An important factor is the question: “How to finance the collecting and recycling”
management.
There exist three main lines:
 Costs calculated by the public community:
The community receives from all households & communities a monthly fee to deal
with (see overview next Fig.) the –
-Residual waste,
-Organic waste
-Hazardous waste,
-Bulky waste,
-Non packaging waste like paper & metals
or
 Costs calculated as a part of the product:
 The merchant has to add the costs for recycling to the product costs paid by
the customer and submit the sum to the public recycler
or
 The merchant is obliged to collect the packaging reliably himself

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How to finance the collecting and recycling

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All products which get imported into or produced in Austria need a waste
certificate. There exist 2 different types of certificates:
- if the community is asked to deal with the disposals of the product (e. g.
packaging of a product, collection and treatment of old electronics,
household machines etc.) for each product the supplier or the producer has to
pay a certain amount of money in advance to the ARA system or,
- if the supplier or the producer himself collects and takes care of the further
treatment no money has to be paid to the ARA system but he gets fined if he
does not fulfil the agreement (see next fig.)
Due to the increasing shortage of areas for deposit in Europe a strong trend has
developed to reduce materials with low life time, to separate, reuse and use the
energy in charges where the separation of fractions is not economically viable. The
recycling rate from public collection – mostly from packaging – differs strongly
between different countries (see next figure).

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Recovery of packaging in EU: Austria among leading countries

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4. Polymer Recycling Technology
4.1. General remarks
We can divide plastics recycling into two major categories: industrial and used
product plastic scrap recycling. Industrial scrap is easy to recycle and re-introduce
into the manufacturing stream, either within the same company as a regrind or sold
to third parties as a homogeneous, reliable and uncontaminated source of resin.
Post-consumer plastic scrap recycling requires the material to go through a full life
cycle prior to being reclaimed. This life cycle can be from a few days for packaging
material to several years for electronic equipment housing material. The post-
consumer plastic scrap can come from commercial, agricultural, and municipal
waste. Municipal plastic scrap primarily consists of packaging waste, but also
plastics from disassembled retired appliances and electronic equipment.
Post consumer plastic recycling requires collecting, handling, cleaning, sorting and
grinding (see next fig.).
Availability and collection of post consumer plastic scrap is perhaps one of the most
critical aspects. Today, the demand for recycled plastics is higher than the
availability of these materials. Although the availability of HDPE from bottles has
seen a slight increase, the availability of recycled PET bottles has decreased in the
past 2 years.

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Cycle of plastic packaging
One of the main reasons for the decrease of PET is the fact that single PET bottles
are primarily consumed outside of the home, making recycling and collection more
difficult. On the other hand, HDPE bottles, which come from milk containers, soap-
and cleaning- bottles, are consumed in the home and are therefore thrown into the
recycling bin by the consumer. A crucial issue when collecting plastic waste is
identifying the type of plastic used to manufacture the product. Packaging is often
identified with the standard SPI identification symbol, which contains the triangular-
shaped recycling arrows and a number between 1 and 7. Often, this is accompanied
by the abbreviated name of the plastic. The next Fig. and next Tab. present the
seven commonly recycled plastics along with the characteristics of each plastic, the
main sources or packaging applications and the common applications for the
recycled materials.

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Plastics, Characteristics, Applications and Use after Recycling

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Electronic housings are often identified with a moulded-in name of the polymer
used, such as ABS, as well as an identifier that reveals if a flame retardant was
used, such as ABS-FR. When a product is not identified, various simple techniques
exist, such as the water or burning tests. The water test simply consists of
determining if a piece of plastic floats or sinks after having added a drop of soap to
the container filled with water. If a part floats, it is either a polyethylene, a
polypropylene, or an expanded or foamed plastic. Most of the remaining polymers
will likely sink. The 2nd
table of chapter 4.2.1 in this handbook summarizes various
tests that can be performed to quickly recognize a type of plastic material. Through
simple observation, a burn test and practice of the demonstrator, an engineer is
often able to identify most plastics.
To achieve this, equipment that performs differential scanning calorimetry, infrared
spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical analysis,
to name a few, is available. Most process and design engineers do not have these
measuring devices at hand, nor do they have the analytical experience to operate
them and interpret the resulting data. Once properly identified, either before or
after cleaning, the plastic part is chopped down in size or ground. The ground clean
plastic scrap is often directly used for processing. For some applications, where
additives are needed or homogenization is required, the ground flakes are extruded
and pelletized. However, this step adds to the cost of the recycled plastic.
The reprocessing of plastics has an effect on the flow and mechanical properties of
the material, as the molecular weight is reduced each time the material is heated
and exposed to shear stress during the pelletizing and manufacturing processes. The
reduction in the molecular weight is accompanied by increases in the melt flow
index, a common technique used to detect degradation. If the recycled polymer was
in contact with a corrosive environment in its previous use, infrared spectroscopy is
used to reveal the impact of the environment on the polymer`s molecular structure.
4.2. How to identify different plastics
To make use of material collected and in particular polymer material it is essential
to know the composition of components. The better we can separate into pure
fractions the easier it is possible to process the polymer at defined high quality.

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In companies it is rather simple to know the polymers saved from production lines.
Polymers from companies specialized in collection and especially public collecting
organisations supply contaminated or mixed polymer fractions.
To regain high quality polymers from recycled material (e.g. construction
applications) there exist limits of contamination by other polymers (see following
fig.).
compatible
compatibility limited
compatible for low amounts
not compatible
Miscibility from different types of polymers for construction application
There exist lots of analysis methods but unfortunately there does not exist a single
method for all cases. The less I know about the examined polymer the more difficult
it can be to analyse the material especially if it is a compound of several
components (polymers or additives).
The following chapter gives methods for analysing ranging from more simple to more
advanced methods.
4.2.1. Identification of plastics by fire performance and density/1st
approach
To identify plastics very often it is helpful to check if the polymer swims in a water
pot or not; additionally the burning behaviour (gas pollution, colour of flame,
burning or not burning drops) in combination with the following tables gives an
answer.
• for comparison density: Steel 7,85 [g/cm³]; Al 2,70 [g/cm³]

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Abbreviation Plastic Density (g/cm3)
SI Silicon resin 0,80
PP Polypropylene (PP): PPH, PPR, PPB 0,85 - 0,92
PE-LD Polyethylene low density 0,89 – 0,93
PB Poly-1-butene 0,91 – 0,92
PIB Polyisobutylene 0,91 – 0,93
NR Natural rubber 0,92 – 1,00
PE-HD Polyethylene high density 0,94 – 0,98
PA 12 Polyamide 12 1,01 – 1,04
PA 11 Polyamide 11 1,03 – 1,05
ABS Acrylonitrile -butadiene- styrene-Copolymer 1,04 – 1,06
PS Polystyrene 1,04 – 1,08
PPO Polyphenylene oxide 1,05 – 1,07
SAN Styrene-acrylonitrile-Copolymere 1,06 – 1,10
PA 6.10 Polyamide 6.10 1,07 – 1,09
EP, UP Epoxy resin (EP), Unsaturated polyester resin (UP) 1,10 – 1,40
PA 6 Polyamide 6 1,12 – 1,15
PA 6.6 Polyamide 6.6 1,13 – 1,16
PAN Polyacrylnitril 1,14 – 1,17
CAB Cellulose acetobutyrate 1,15 – 1,25
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate 1,16 – 1,20
PVAC Polyvinylacetate (adhesives, coatings, paints) 1,17 – 1,20
CP Cellulose propionate 1,18 – 1,24
PVC-P PVC – plasticized 1,19 – 1,35
PC Polycarbonate (basis Bisphenole A) 1,20 – 1,22
PUR Polyurethane 1,20 – 1,26
PVAL, PVOH Polyvinylalcohol 1,21 – 1,31
CA Cellulose acetate (cigarettes) 1,25 – 1,35
PF Phenolic -formaldehyde-resin, without filler 1,26 – 1,28
PF Phenolic-formaldehyde-resin,
With organic fillers (e.g. paper, fabric)
1,30 – 1,41
Celluloid Celluloid 1,34 – 1,40
PET Polyethylenterephthalate 1,38 – 1,41
PVC-U PVC - unplasticized 1,38 – 1,42
POM Polyoxymethylene 1,41 – 1,43
UF, MF Urea - formaldehyde and Melamine - formaldehyde resin, with
organic fillers
1,47 – 1,52
PVCC Polyvinylchloride, additional chlorinated 1,47 – 1,55
PF, UF, MF Phenolic-, formaldehyde resin, with organic fillers 1,50 – 2,00
Polyester-and
Epoxy-resin,
filled with
glass fibres
Polyester- and Epoxy-resin, filled with glass fibres 1,80 – 2,30
PVDC Polyvinylidene chloride 1,86 – 1,88
PCTFE Polychlortrifluoro ethylene 2,10 – 2,20
PTFE Polytetrafluorethylene 2,10 – 2,30

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Fire performance Flame Smell of vapour Plastic
Not burning
- - Silicone (SI)
- Fluoric acid (pungent)
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE),
Polychlortrifluorethylene
(PCTFE)
- - Polyimide (PI)
Hardly inflammable,
self extinguishing
light, producing soot Phenol, Formaldehyde Phenolic formaldehyde (PF)
light yellow
Ammonia, Amine (like
fish); Formaldehyde
Aminoplastics
green edges
Hydrogen chloride
(pungent)
Chlorinated rubber,
Polyvinylchloride (PVC),
Polyvinylidenchloride (PVDC),
(without burnable plasticizer)
Burns in flame,
self extinguishing or not
luminous, producing
soot
- Polycarbonate (PC)
yellow, gray smoke - Silicon rubber (SI)
yellow-orange, blue
smoke
Burned horn Polyamide (PA)
dark yellow, producing
soot
Acetic acid Cellulose acetate (CA)
yellow Phenol Phenolic formaldehyde (PF)
luminous,
decomposition
scratching the throat Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
yellow-orange Burned rubber Poly chloroprene
yellow-orange,
producing soot
cloying, aromatic
Polyethylene therephtalate
(PET)
yellow, blue seam Isocyanate (pungent) Polyurethane (PU)
yellow, blue core Paraffin Polyolefin (PE, PP)
luminous, producing
soot
Acrid smell
Polyester resin (UP) (glass fibre
restrained)
Easy inflammable,
continuous flaring up
luminous, producing
soot
Styrene (cloying) Polystyrene (PS), EPS
dark-yellow, weak
producing soot
Acetic acid Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC)
dark-yellow, producing
soot
Burned rubber Natural rubber (NR)
luminous, blue core,
sizzling
cloying-fruity
Polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA), Plexiglass
light blue Formaldehyde Polyoxymethylene (POM)
dark-yellow, weak
producing soot
Acetic acid, Butter acid Cellulose acetobutyrate (CAB)
light-yellow, sparking Acetic acid Cellulose acetate (CA)
yellow-orange Burned paper Cellulose
light, fierce Nitric oxide Cellulose nitrate

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4.2.2. Solubility
A further method to identify selected thermoplastic polymers is their solubility in liquids
(see following table- [1]). Elastomers (partially crosslinked molecular chains) exposed to
selected liquids show expansion and limited solubility; thermosets (high degree of
crosslinked polymer chains) show no expansion and no solubility.
Recycling
number
Abbreviation
Dissolving
agents
No solubility
1 PET
m-cresol, o-
chlorene-phenole
nitrobenzene,
trichloroacetic acid
methanol, acetone,
aliphatic
hydrocarbons
2 HDPE
xylene,
trichlorobenzene,
decaline, tetraline
acetone, diethyl
ether, low level
alcohol
3 PVC or V
tetrahydrofuran,
cyclohexanone,
methylethylcetone,
dimethylformamide
methanol, acetone,
heptane
4 LDPE
xylene,
trichlorobenzene,
decaline, tetraline
acetone, diethyl
ether, low level
alcohol
5 PP
xylene,
trichlorobenzene,
decaline, tetraline
acetone, diethyl
ether, low level
alcohol
6 PS
Benzole, toluene,
chloroform,
cyclohexanone,
butylacetate,
carbon disulfide
Low level alcohol,
diethyl ether, acetone
7 OTHER 7or O
PAN
Polyacrlonitrilics
Dimethylformamide,
dimethylsulfoxide,
conc. Sulfuracid
alcohol, diethyl
ether, water,
hydrocarbon
PA
Polyamides
Ants acid, conc.
sulphur acid,
Dimethylformamide,
m- cresol
Methanol, diethyl
ether, hydrocarbon
Recycling number (SPI resin identification code) for Polymer
characterization

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4.2.3. nfrared (IR) spectroscopy [2]
Infrared spectroscopy has developed into one of the most important techniques used to
identify polymeric materials. It is based on the interaction between matter and
electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths between 1 and 50 µm. The atoms in a molecule
vibrate in a characteristic mode, which is usually called a fundamental frequency. Thus,
each molecule has a set group of characteristic frequencies which can be used as a diagnosis
tool to detect the presence of distinct group. The next table presents the absorption
wavelength for several chemical groups.
Group Wavelength [µm] Wave number [cm-1] Ann.
O-H 2,74 3650
N-H 3,00 3333
C-H 3,36 2976 stretching CH2-, CH3- groups
C=O 5,80 1724 stretching
C=N 5,94 1684
C=C 6,07 1647 stretching
C=S 6,57 1522
C-H 6,90 1449 bending
C-O 9,67 1034
C-C 11,49 870
Absorption Wavelengths for Various Groups
The range for most commercially available infrared spectroscopes is between 2 and 25 µm.
Hence, the spectrum taken between 2 and 25 µm serves as a fingerprint for that specific
polymer, as shown in the next figure for polycarbonate
Structure of a branched PE molecule
Infrared spectrum of a PE film

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Structure of a PET molecule
Infrared spectrum of a PET film
Structure of a PC molecule
Infrared spectrum of a polycarbonate film
An infrared spectrometer to measure the absorption spectrum of a material is schematically
represented the reference at the end of this lecture notes [8].
Using infrared spectroscopy can also help in quantitatively evaluating the effects of
weathering (e.g., by measuring the increase of the absorption band of the COOK group, or

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by monitoring the water intake over time). One can also use the technique to follow
reaction kinetics during polymerization.
In the wave length range 0,8 to 2,5 µm (IR) it is possible after calibration to separate
complex fractions of polymers destined for recycling consisting of e.g. PE, PP, PS, PET, PVC.
For “inline analysis” of polymer reactions in polymer melts (e.g. in extruders) IR-analysis
can be applied.
4.2.4. Thermal analysis [2]
Thanks to modern analytical instruments it is possible to measure thermal data with a
considerable degree of accuracy. This data allows a good insight into chemical and
manufacturing processes. Accurate thermal data or properties are necessary for everyday
calculations and computer simulations of thermal processes. Such analyses are used to
design polymer processing installations and to determine and optimize processing
conditions. In the last twenty years, several physical thermal measuring devices have been
developed to determine thermal data used to analyze processing and polymer component
behaviour.
Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) The differential thermal analysis test serves to
examine transitions and reactions which occur within a range of seconds and minutes, and
involve a measurable energy differential of less than 0,04 J/g. Usually, the measuring is
done dynamically (i.e., with linear temperature variations in time). However, in some cases
isothermal measurements are also done. DTA is mainly used to determine the transition
temperatures. The principle is shown in next figure. Here the sample. S, and an inert
substance, I, are placed in an oven that it has the capacity to raise its temperature linearly.

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Schematic of a differential thermal analysis test
Two thermocouples that monitor the samples are connected opposite to one another in that
way that no voltage is measured as long as S and I are at the same temperature:
∆T = TS – TI = 0
However, if a transition or a reaction occurs in the sample at a temperature, TC, then a heat
is consumed or released, in which case ∆T ≠ 0. This thermal disturbance in the time can be
recorded and used to interpret possible information about the reaction temperature, TC, the
heat of transition or reaction, ∆H, or simply about the existence of a transition or reaction.
Next figure shows the temperature history in a sample with an endothermic melting point
(i.e., such as the one that occurs during melting of semi-crystalline polymers like PE, PP, PA
etc.). The next figure also shows the functions ∆T (TI ) and ∆T (TS) which result from such a
test. A comparison between a, b, c in the next figure demonstrates that it is very important
to record the sample temperature, TS, to determine a transition temperature, such as the
melting or glass transition temperature.

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Temperature and temperature differences measured during
melting of a semi-crystalline polymer sample
Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) The differential scanning calorimeter permits
us to determine the thermal transition of polymers over a range of temperatures between -
180 and + 600 °C. Unlike the DTA cell, in a DSC device, thermocouples are not placed
directly inside the sample or the reference substance. Instead, they are embedded in the
specimen holder or stage on which the sample and reference pans are placed; the
thermocouples make contact with the containers from the outside. A schematic diagram of
a differential scanning calorimeter is very similar to the one shown in the previous figure
above. Materials that do not show or undergo transition or react in the measuring range
(e.g., air, glass powder, etc.) are placed inside the reference container. For
standardization, one generally uses mercury, tin, or zinc, the properties of which are known
exactly. In contrast to the DTA test, where samples larger than 10g are needed, the DSC
test requires samples that are in the mg range (< 10mg).
DSC tests are the most widely used tests for thermal analysis. In fact, DTA tests are rarely
used in the polymer industry.
The next figure shows a typical DSC curve measured using a partly crystalline polymer
sample. In the figure, the area that is enclosed between the trend line and the base line is a
measurement for the amount of heat, ∆H, needed for transition. In this case , the transition
is melting and the area corresponds to the heat of fusion.

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The degree of crystallinity, X, is determined from the ration of the heat of fusion of a
polymer sample. ∆HSC, and the enthalpy of fusion of a 100% crystalline sample ∆HC .
X = {∆HSC / ∆HC} x 100 [%]
In a DSC analysis of a semi-crystalline polymer, a jump in the specific heat curve, as shown
in the next figure, becomes visible. The glass transition temperature, Tg, is determined at
the inflection point of the specific heat curve. The release of residual stresses as a
material`s temperature is raised above the glass transition temperature is often observed in
a DSC analysis.
Specific heat, Cp, is one of the many material properties that can be measured with DSC.
During a DSC temperature run, the sample pan and the reference pan are maintained at the
same temperature. This allows the measurement of the differential energy required to
maintain identical temperatures. The sample with the higher heat capacity will absorb a
larger amount of heat, which is proportional to the difference between the heat capacity of
the measuring sample and the reference sample. It is also possible to determine the purity
of a polymer sample when additional peaks or curve shifts are detected in a DSC
measurement.
Typical DSC heat flow for a semi-crystalline polymer

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Thermal degradation is generally accompanied by an exothermic reaction which may result
from oxidation. Such a reaction can easily be detected in a DSC output. By further warming
of the test sample, cross-linking may take place and, finally, chain breakage, as shown in
the figure above.
The differential scanning calorimeter is used to measure the melting, Tm, and the glass
transition temperatures of polymers using ISO 11357 and ASTM 3418 tests.
4.3. Sorting methods
4.3.1. Sorting in companies
Post industrial recycling in companies is rather simple. The identity of the material
is clear. Left over/recovered from processing the material gets collected then cut
and reused at a certain concentration in addition to the virgin material. There exist
only few products where the use of regrind is prohibited according to laws or
according standards prohibited or strongly restricted like in applications in - medical
devices, - packaging of food stuff, - pressure pipes for gas etc.
4.3.2. Sorting of polymers from public waste.
The recycling of publicly collected light packaging for further recycling process
needs to be preselected by separating it from glass, paper and metal (see next fig.).
The results are fractions of various polymers which have to be selected for further
useful application (see next fig.).

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Publicly Collected light packaging (all without glass, paper and metal)
The further separation into selected fractions might be done either manually by
small enterprises or by public sorting in fully automated sorting facilities (see next
figures)
Small private collecting enterprises

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Manual and fully automated sorting

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4.4. Machinery for plasticizing to granules
There already exist specialized companies for separation of polymers as well as for
the processing of granules from selected polymer fractions.
e. g. companies
STARLINGER
EREMA
NGR
4.4.1. PET to PET (PET2PET)
Because PET is used in a lot of applications like beverage bottles, carpets, clothing
60-70%), cars, etc. is a very valuable and versatile material with excellent
performance. Unfortunately in many countries there is no disposal system and the
people are not aware of the environmental impacts they are creating for
themselves.
In the last years the environmental concerns in combination with a developing
market for PET from beverages has developed inducing communities and private
enterprises to erect recycling plants. For the reuse of PET again for beverage bottles
and containers the content of acetaldehyde (a decomposition product of PET in the
recycling process) limited the reuse in an important sector. Now there exist new
procedures to reduce the content of acetaldehyde to the range of limits imposed by
law for food packaging.
In the following the recycling of PET from beverage to PET for food packaging again
PET2PET as well as other applications will be given.
A state of the art modern plant for PET2PET is shown in the following picture. All
figures and graphs in this chapter have been provided by courtesy of the company
Starlinger.

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Overview PET2PET bottle recycling plant (company Starlinger)
recoSTAR PET iV+ (company Starlinger)
Left: recoSTAR SSP right: viscoSTAR 75

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There follows a detailed explanation of the plant:
1st
pre treatment:
Starting the process the bottles –
-PVC bottles are separated by an infared detection unit,
- get squeezed and the majority of the labels (paper, etc.) loose their adhesion
and are separated in an air separator,
- now the bottles pass a metal detector and a final hand sorting process
(remove green and white bottles and remaining non bottle products),
- then the bottle get cut into small flakes,
- the flakes get washed, then dried,
- a subsequent air separator removes dust, glue and any remaining labels
(mostly paper),
In the remaining flakes remain only fractions of PET from the bottles and PE-HD
from the caps.
The next process starts with a-
- Washing and separating of the PET from the PE-HD in a water based flotation
process. The lighter PE-HD floats at the water surface while the heavier PET
flakes sink down thus enabling the separation between these two
components.
- The washed flakes get colour sorted and optionally additional PVC is sorted
out by an infrared unit.
2nd
pre treatment:
The flakes prepared in the 1st
pre treatment now undergo a 2nd
pre treatment
described in the following procedure (see below):

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2nd
pre treatment (company Starlinger)
The extruder 4 is described in the next figure:

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Extruder (company Starlinger)
In the downstream direction the polymer melt gets filtrated, thus removing the last inherent particles. Modern filtration works
with back flushing systems so enabling an extension of service lie of the screens (see next figure).

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Melt filtration (company Starlinger)
Downstream the polymer strands are lead into a water bath followed by the Strand Pelletizing Unit (SPU). This might be a
standard layout with dry cut or an automatic system with a waterslide (see following pictures)

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Strand Pelletizing Unit (SPU) / standard (company Starlinger)
Standard layout with dry cut up to 700 kg/h

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Automatic Strand Pelletizing Unit (SPU) with water slide and under water pelletizing last > 800 kg/h (see next figure)
Under water pelletizing (company Starlinger)

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The next step describes various pelletizing procedures see next figure from standard pelletizing 8 to advanced pelletizing 9 to
optimized pelletizing procedure 10:
Pelletizing (company Starlinger)

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1: Crystallizer and stirrer prevent pellets from sticking and
continue the crystallizing process (160°C / 1,5h)
2: Vacuum transport line
3: Pre heater of the reactor (4), batches of ca. 150kg are
heated up from 160 to ca. 190-200 °C
4: Reactor vessel under vacuum; Solid State Polycondensation
continues; volatiles and non volatiles are removed and
captured in the condenser for proper disposal
5: Cooling vessel (pellets get transported by vacuum into 6)
6: Final storage silo

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4.4.2. Machinery for edge trim and film on reels
Companies which produce sheets or films made of PE, PP, PE/PA etc. for various
applications often have to trim the sheets or films to a defined size; The trimmings
can amount to a large quantity of material and because it is specified it makes sense
to recycle it. These rather thin products are not possible to cut it and add it directly
to the normal extrusion process because of feeding problems with flakes. Therefore
after cutting a new plastification and re granulation process is required.
For such application special machinery has been developed and is shown in the
figure below.
recoSTAR compact (company Starlinger)
Cutting technology:
A sensitive and important factor is the cutting technology (especially of films)
because it needs special design of the cutting chamber to achieve a constant feeding
rate for films and sheets (see next figure).

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Cutting chamber (company Starlinger)
The next figure shows the process line in more detail.

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Process description (company Starlinger)

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After extrusion the melt is fed into a melt filtration to keep non homogeneous
components back (paper, aluminium flakes, non- plasticized components from other
fractions). There exist standard double piston filter and double piston backflushing
filter which allows a longer use of the filter screen (see next figure).
Melt filtration (company Starlinger)

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5. Recycling- when do we see a financial benefit ?
The following calculations and graphs have been provided courtesy of the company
NGR [6].

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6. Application of recycled material

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7. Literature
[1] Braun D.: “Erkennen von Kunststoffen”, Hanser Publisher, 1978
[2] Oswald, Baur, Brinkmann, Oberbach, Schmachtenberg:
„International Plastics Handbook“, Hanser Publisher, 2006
[3] Wunderlich B., „Macromolecular Physics“, Vol 1;
Academic Press Inc., 1973
[4] Ritchie P.D.: “Physics of Plastics”, D. Van Nostrand Comp. Inc.; 1965
[5] Company Starlinger, A-2564 Weissenbach/ Austria: Information sheets
[6] Company NGR, A-4101 Feldkirchen a.d.Donau/Austria: Information sheets
[7] Austrian Regulations concerning collection of packaging waste (enclosed
below)
[8] IR-Spectroscopy method

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[7]: Austrian Regulations

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[8] IR-Spectroscopy method
It consists of an infrared light source that can sweep through a certain wavelength range,
and that splits into two beams:
- One that serves as a reference and
- The other that passed through the test specimen. The comparison of the two gives
the absorption spectrum, shown in figure below.
Schematic diagram of an infrared spectrometer

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