Early Childhood Developmental Task of Early Childhood • Initiative vs. guilt • Children use their (boundless) energy and developing motor skills and interests to take the initiative in trying new things • Develop sense of purpose • Key • Self-regulation. Must learn self-control Self-Regulation in Early Childhood What is Self-Regulation? • Processes where we manage or modify our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors What is Self-Regulation? • Processes where we manage or modify our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors • Many different types of self-regulation • Emotional, attentional, behavioral, cognitive (thinking, concentrating, working memory) ‘To Do, or Not to Do’ • Sometimes self-regulation is framed in terms of • Don’t regulation • Stop ourselves from doing something that we want to do • Do regulation • Do something that we don’t really want to do Examples of Practicing Self- Regulation • Don’t regulation • Not hitting, not taking someone’s toy, not yelling or running inside • Not running away in store • Do regulation: • Cleaning up, eating vegetables, going to sleep Why is Self-Regulation Important? • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ Why is Self-Regulation Important? • What did you observe the children do to not eat the marshmallow? • Why might this ability to ‘delay gratification’ be important? Why is Self-Regulation Important? • Good self-regulationà Self-control or disciplined behavior; lower impulsivity • Aids social development • Need for healthy social relationships, prosocial behavior • Need for learning in school Why is Self-Regulation Hard? • Motivational system develops first • Impulses are powerful and present at birth • Energizes us to ‘approach’ (yum; curiosity) or ‘avoid’ (yuck) • Includes emotions, fight/flight response • Self-regulation system takes more time to develop • Region of brain (prefrontal cortex; PFC) associated with self- regulation develops more slowly • The immature PFC is no match for impulses Where Does Good Self-Regulation ‘Come From’? • Self-regulation is a “muscle” that we can exercise • Practice – repeatedly over time – builds self- regulation • Eventually it is internalized and happens without effort What Influences the Development of Self-Regulation? • Biology (e.g., temperament) • Parents • Love: Child wants to comply • Structure: Rules, limits are clear, consistent • Autonomy support: Appropriate choices given • Cognitive factors (e.g., memory) • Nutrition • Self-regulation takes energy (you need glucose) External and Internal Regulation As we develop, External regulation à internal regulation • External regulation = Structure! • External: Coming from outside the child • Adults assist in regulating behavior • Internal regulation • Child internalizes rules and can do it themselves • Still need structure, reminders Studying Self-Regulation in Early Childhood ...

1. Early Childhood
Developmental Task of
Early Childhood
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Children use their (boundless) energy and
developing motor skills and interests to
take the initiative in trying new things
• Develop sense of purpose
• Key
• Self-regulation. Must learn self-control
Self-Regulation in Early
Childhood
What is Self-Regulation?
• Processes where we manage or modify our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors

2. What is Self-Regulation?
• Processes where we manage or modify our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
• Many different types of self-regulation
• Emotional, attentional, behavioral, cognitive (thinking,
concentrating, working memory)
‘To Do, or Not to Do’
• Sometimes self-regulation is framed in terms of
• Don’t regulation
• Stop ourselves from doing something that we want to do
• Do regulation
• Do something that we don’t really want to do
Examples of Practicing Self-
Regulation
• Don’t regulation
• Not hitting, not taking someone’s toy, not yelling or
running inside
• Not running away in store
• Do regulation:
• Cleaning up, eating vegetables, going to sleep

3. Why is Self-Regulation Important?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ
Why is Self-Regulation Important?
• What did you observe the children do to not eat
the marshmallow?
• Why might this ability to ‘delay gratification’ be
important?
Why is Self-Regulation Important?
• Good self-regulationà Self-control or disciplined
behavior; lower impulsivity
• Aids social development
• Need for healthy social relationships, prosocial behavior
• Need for learning in school
Why is Self-Regulation Hard?
• Motivational system develops first
• Impulses are powerful and present at birth

4. • Energizes us to ‘approach’ (yum; curiosity) or ‘avoid’ (yuck)
• Includes emotions, fight/flight response
• Self-regulation system takes more time to develop
• Region of brain (prefrontal cortex; PFC) associated with self-
regulation develops more slowly
• The immature PFC is no match for impulses
Where Does Good Self-Regulation
‘Come From’?
• Self-regulation is a “muscle” that we can
exercise
• Practice – repeatedly over time – builds self-
regulation
• Eventually it is internalized and happens without
effort
What Influences the Development
of Self-Regulation?
• Biology (e.g., temperament)
• Parents
• Love: Child wants to comply
• Structure: Rules, limits are clear, consistent
• Autonomy support: Appropriate choices given
• Cognitive factors (e.g., memory)

5. • Nutrition
• Self-regulation takes energy (you need glucose)
External and Internal Regulation
As we develop,
External regulation à internal regulation
• External regulation = Structure!
• External: Coming from outside the child
• Adults assist in regulating behavior
• Internal regulation
• Child internalizes rules and can do it
themselves
• Still need structure, reminders
Studying Self-Regulation in Early
Childhood
• Observe compliance, delay-of-gratification
behaviors (emerge ~12-18 months)
• Compliance. Going along (or not) with ‘Do’ and ‘Don’t’
commands
High Level of Support Less Support Low Level of Support
Hands-on assistance
Environmental cues

6. Verbal reminders
Direct supervision
Environmental cues
No prompting, no
assistance
Environmental cues
TIME à
6
Internalization
Emotion Regulation: What are
Emotions?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g
Emotion Regulation: What are
Emotions?
• Rapid appraisals of situations
• Functions:
• Give us important information about a situation
• Energize behaviors
• Communicate to others
What is Emotion Regulation?
• A type of self-regulation where we (consciously or

7. unconsciously) modify our emotions and/or their
expression
Development of Emotion Regulation
• Emotion regulation develops over 1st year with
caregiver guidance
• Infants are able to express but not control emotions
• By early childhood, we’ve begun learning how to
• Down regulate (calm down extreme emotions)
• Up regulate (cheer up or comfort self)
Why is Emotion Regulation
Important?
• Social consequences
• We can act out emotions in socially appropriate ways
(e.g., meltdown vs. proper expression)
• Allows us to succeed in social environments
• We can get along with friends, peers
Why is Emotion Regulation
Important?
• Cognitive consequences
• Without regulation, emotions can impair learning and
academic achievement

8. Teaching Children Emotion
Regulation
• Very young children don’t know what emotions are
or what they mean – can be scary and confusing
• Adults can ‘emotionally coach’ children to
recognize emotions, what they mean, and how to
act
Teaching Children Emotion
Regulation
• Help children learn to recognize emotions by
pointing them out
• Help them to see cause of emotion
• “Your sister took your toy, did that make you feel sad or
mad?”
• Accept children’s negative emotions
• Tendency is to avoid/fix/get rid of negative emotions
• Better to help children identify and manage them in
healthy ways
Learning to Regulate Emotions:
The RULER Intervention

9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkZd2VKpFrU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkZd2VKpFrU
Early Childhood Education
Background
What is school readiness?
• Children having skills they
need to be successful in first
school year
Background
• One-third of children are assessed as not ready to
successfully complete kindergarten-level work
Why Does ‘School Readiness’ Matter?
The achievement gap
• Differences between less
and more advantaged
students persist, widen
• Children from less
advantaged backgrounds

10. start kindergarten
approximately 2 years
behind their peers
Example: The 30 Million Word
Gap
Why Does ‘School Readiness’ Matter?
• An unsuccessful kindergarten transition and first
year is a strong predictor of
• Academic disengagement, disruption, withdrawal
• Drop-out, irresponsible and deviant behavior
• Long-term adverse outcomes (e.g., unemployment)
A
Solution
: Early Childhood Education
• Research shows that this gap can be closed by
providing early educational opportunities to
children

11. • Early childhood education (ECE) is any formal
educational program that children participate in
before entering kindergarten
• The goal of ECE is to prepare child for a successful
transition into kindergarten
Early Childhood Education
• A high-quality ECE classroom is ‘child-centered’
• Attuned to child's developmental needs
• ‘Child-centered’ classrooms are evidence-based
• Scaffolds learning…
• Develop secure stable relationships…
• Offers appropriate…
• Structure
• Autonomy support
• Responsiveness

12. Early Childhood Education
• A high-quality ECE classroom is ‘child-centered’
• Attuned to child's developmental needs
• ‘Child-centered’ classrooms are evidence-based
• Scaffolds learning… Vygotsky and ZPD
• Develop secure stable relationships… attachment theory
• Offers appropriate… parenting dimensions
• Structure
• Autonomy support
• Responsiveness
Immediate Benefits of ECE
• Skills for learning
• Skills for socializing (experiences with teachers,
peers)
• Time to adjust to new context

13. • Become familiar with structures (routines, rules,
expectations) of school setting
Long-Term Benefits of ECE
• Reduces (or closes) achievement gap for
disadvantaged children
• Reduces many of the adverse consequences of
poverty on child developmental outcomes
Long-Term Benefits of ECE
Economic benefits
• Early intervention programs represent
$2-$16 ‘return on investment’
• Ex: Special and remedial education,
grade retention, high school graduation
rate, crime and incarceration,

14. employment, earned income (Mervis, 2011)
Ramey & Ramey, 2004; Mashburn, 2014
Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNgp1_B-6c8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNgp1_B-6c8
Meta-Theories
Handout:

15. • Sets of assumptions about human nature and
development
What is a Meta-Theory?
• What we look for
• The questions we ask
• The methods we use
• How we interpret
research findings
Meta-Theories
Important because they affect:
1. Human nature

16. 2. Nature and/or nurture
3. Active and/or passive
4. Stability and/or change
5. Continuity and/or discontinuity
6. Universal and/or context-specific
Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
1. Human nature
• Inherently good?
• Inherently bad?
• Blank slate?

17. Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
2. Nature and/or nurture
• Nature: heredity, genes, maturational processes
• Nurture: environment, experience, learning
Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
3. Active and/or passive
• Passive participants reacting to external forces?
• Active in choosing/shaping development?
Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
4. Stability and/or change
• Stable: early characteristics persist; early
experiences have permanent effects

18. • Malleable: individuals change in response to
experience
Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
5. Continuity and/or discontinuity
• Quantitative: gradual, incremental
• Qualitative: abrupt, fundamental changes
Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
6. Universal and/or context-specific
• Universal: everyone develops the same way
• Context-specific: development depends on
contexts (e.g., history, culture)

19. Four Meta-Theories
Maturational Mechanistic
Organismic Contextual
Supplemental Reading:
What is a Model?
• A metaphor used to represent reality
• We use it to structure our understanding of
something
• Each meta-theory has a model associated with it

20. • Model: “Plant”
Maturational Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Genetic – good or bad
• Nature and/or nurture:
• Nature
• Active and/or passive:
• Passive
• Stability and/or change:
• Stability
• Continuous and/or discontinuous:
• Depends on genetic program
• Universal and/or context-specific:
• Universal
Maturational Meta-Theory

21. • Model: “Machine”
Mechanistic Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Blank slate
• Nature and/or nurture:
• Nurture
• Active and/or passive:
• Passive
• Stability and/or change:
• Change
• Continuous and/or discontinuous:
• Continuous
• Universal and/or context-specific:

22. • Context-specific
Mechanistic Meta-Theory
• Model: “Butterfly”
Organismic Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Good
• Nature and/or nurture:
• Nature
• Active and/or passive:
• Active
• Stability and/or change:
• Change
• Continuous and/or discontinuous:

23. • Discontinuous
• Universal and/or context-specific:
• Universal
Organismic Meta-Theory
• Model: “Tennis match”
Contextual Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Both
• Nature and/or nurture:
• Both
• Active and/or passive:
• Active
• Stability and/or change:

24. • Both
• Continuous and/or discontinuous:
• Both
• Universal and/or context-specific:
• Both
Contextual Meta-Theory
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
• Ethological theory (John Bowlby)
• Handout: “Development is the product
of biologically-based… programs shaped
by human genetic and evolutionary

25. history.”
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
• Human nature: Depends (on genetics)
• Nature and/or nurture: Nature
• Active and/or passive: Passive
• Stability and/or change: Depends (on genetics)
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Depends (on
genetics)
• Universal and/or context-specific: Universal
Organismic Maturational Mechanistic Contextual
• Learning theory (B. F. Skinner)
• Handout: “Development is the product
of learning from the consequences of

26. ones’ behavior through operant
conditioning.”
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
• Human nature: Blank
• Nature and/or nurture: Nurture
• Active and/or passive: Passive
• Stability and/or change: Stability
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Continuity
• Universal and/or context-specific: Context-
specific
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
Organismic Maturational Mechanistic Contextual
• Cognitive development theory (Jean

27. Piaget)
• Handout: “Development proceeds
through four stages of cognitive
development.”
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
• Human nature: Good
• Nature and/or nurture: Nature
• Active and/or passive: Active
• Stability and/or change: Change
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Discontinuity
• Universal and/or context-specific: Universal
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
Organismic Maturational Mechanistic Contextual
• Bio-ecological systems theory
(Urie Bronfenbrenner)

28. • Handout: “Development is the
result of reciprocal social
interactions between an active
person and their social partners
in a series of nested contexts.”
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
• Human nature: Good
• Nature and/or nurture: Both
• Active and/or passive: Active
• Stability and/or change: Both
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Both
• Universal and/or context-specific: Both
Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
Organismic Maturational Mechanistic Contextual

29. Paper 1:
Reflective
Assessment
Paper 1: Three Parts
1. Me and my development
2. Me and my meta-theory
3. Integrating theories, meta-theories, and
assumptions
Part 1: Me and My Development
1. Who has had a significant influence on your own

30. development?
• Talk about 2-3 people
• Give specific examples
2. Whose development have you influenced?
• 1 person: Give a specific example
Part 2: Me and My Meta-Theory
• For each of the 6 meta-theoretical assumptions
• State your opinion (i.e., people are active, not passive)
and give a specific example that supports your
experience
• There are some framing questions to help structure
your thinking and writing

31. Part 3: Integrating Theories,
Meta-Theories, and Assumptions
3.1 Theories liked/disliked
• Choose 2 theories: one liked, one disliked
• Name and define each theory in your own words
• Explain what you like/dislike about it
• Tip: Book may be especially helpful here
• p. 3 of textbook covers ‘theories’
• pp. 12-20 covers multiple theories you could use
• Theories also listed on meta-theories handout
Part 3: Integrating Theories,
Meta-Theories, and Assumptions
3.2 What is my meta-theory?

32. • What do your preferences on theories tell you about your
meta-
theoretical preferences?
• Connect your preferences to a meta-theory
• “What I like about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is
that
the individual is active in affecting their own development.”
• “What I dislike about ethological theory is that it says nature
is
running the show and I think nurture plays a role.”
• All things considered, which meta-theory do you like/dislike
the
most?
Submitting the Paper
• Submit online via D2L in
• Word document (.doc, .docx file)

33. • PDF (.pdf file)
• To submit paper or view rubric, go to Activities à
Assignments à Paper 1
• Late papers: 10% deduction per day for 7 days
Grading Rubric
Questions?
Identifying Your Assumptions
• Please work alone or with a partner
• Start identifying your assumptions
• Work through the 6 assumptions listed in Part 2 of the

34. Paper 1 Assignment
• Don’t have to go through in order
• Can brainstorm examples
• The point is not to convince or sway your partner; it
is to identify your own assumptions
• Please raise your hand if you have any questions
Big Picture Themes in
Developmental Psychology
Supplemental Reading:
1. Optimal development involves the whole person
over time
2. Development is promoted through person-
centered contexts and interactions

35. 3. People have characteristics that they ‘carry’ with
them into a dynamic present
4. Development occurs through reciprocal
interactions
5. All people face developmental tasks
6. There are many pathways to optimal development
Six ‘Big Picture’ Themes:
1. Optimal development involves the whole person
over time
• Optimal = ‘Best case scenario’ (person is healthy,
thriving, resilient)
Big Picture Themes

36. 2. Development is promoted through person-
centered contexts and interactions
• This means that the environment(s) and the people in it
are attuned to the needs of the developing person
• Examples
• Child-centered parenting
• Student-centered classrooms
Big Picture Themes
3. People have characteristics that they ‘carry’ with
them into a dynamic present
• Individual carries ’suitcase’ of assets and vulnerabilities
• Present consists of multiple interacting contexts
Big Picture Themes

37. 4. Development occurs through reciprocal
interactions between
• An active developing individual
• An active changing context
Big Picture Themes
5. All people face developmental tasks
• We all go through the same basic
developmental stages
• Stages are culturally and historically
relative
Big Picture Themes
6. There are many pathways to optimal
development

38. • Remarkable capacity for change, recovery, repair
Big Picture Themes
Questions?
Unit 1 Review
• Defined development
• What is development, what develops, when do we
develop, what influences development?
• Compared traditional vs. lifespan views
• 7 propositions of lifespan development
• Examined meta-theories
• 6 assumptions
• 4 meta-theories
• What is your meta-theory? (Paper 1)

39. • Discussed 6 big picture themes
Unit 4: Family
Parenting
Divorce
Child Maltreatment
Parenting
Introduction to Parenting
• Dimensions of
parenting
• Styles of parenting
• Systems view of

40. parenting
What Do Children Need?
Skinner, Johnson, & Snyder, 2005
• Examined studies on parenting
dimensions, behaviors beginning in
1940’s
• Identified core caregiving dimensions
Three dimensions of parenting
• Love vs. rejection
• Structure vs. chaos
• Autonomy support vs. coercion
Rejection
Structure

41. Chaos Coercion
Love Autonomy
What Children Need: Love
• Love dimension
• Responsiveness, warmth, affection
• Time spent together, involvement
• Encouragement, praise
• Hostility, rejection dimension
• Lack of affection, cold
• Harshly critical
• Derision, ridicule, contempt
What Children Need: Love
• Why is love important?
• Worthy of love. Communicates you are a

42. good person
• Trust. World is a good, safe place; you can
trust others
• Social competence. Enjoy interacting with
others; do so skillfully
• Belongingness. Feeling like we are
accepted and part of a group(s)
What Children Need: Structure
• Structure dimension
• Clear, firm rules, follow-through,
consistency
• High expectations, demandingness (age-
appropriate)
• Guidance, supervision
• Chaos dimension

43. • Lax rules, inconsistency
• Indulgence, no follow-through
• Lack of supervision
What Children Need: Structure
• Why do children need structure, limits?
• Most important: Develop self-control
• Rules (especially in lieu of self-control)
keeps child and others safe
• Learn to get along with others, not act
impulsively or selfishly (managing impulses
is form of self-control)
What Children Need: Autonomy
• Autonomy dimension
• Freedom to make decisions
• Encourage independence, individuality

44. • Respect, trust
• Coercion dimension
• Rigidity, pressure, control
• Use of threats, manipulation
What Children Need: Autonomy
• Why is autonomy important?
• Learn to communicate actual preferences, desires
• Make own mistakes and learn from them
• Learn to take initiative, how to make decisions
• Develop own goals, agenda, interests, passions
• Learn own strengths, limits
• Take ownership
Styles of Parenting
Maccoby & Martin, 1983
1. Authoritative
2. Authoritarian

45. 3. Neglectful
4. Overprotective
5. Permissive/indulgent
Styles of Parenting: Authoritative
1. Love. High/attuned
• Responsive, loving, affectionate
2. Structure. High/attuned
• High expectations, appropriate
rules/limits
3. Autonomy. High/attuned
• Appropriate space for choice;
explanations
Styles of Parenting: Neglectful

46. 1. Love. Low/not attuned
• Unavailable, cold, distant
2. Structure. Low/not attuned
• Expectations, rules inconsistent or
non-existent
• Follow-through inconsistent or non-
existent
3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned
• Disinterested
• Inconsistent/fluctuating
Styles of Parenting: Indulgent
1. Love. High/attuned
• Responsive, loving, affectionate
2. Structure. Low/not attuned
• Lax rules; follow-through

47. inconsistent or non-existent; little or
no supervision
3. Autonomy. High/not attuned
• (Too much) freedom
Styles of Parenting: Overprotective
1. Love. High/not attuned
• Conditional love; warm, affectionate
2. Structure. High/not attuned
• Inappropriately high limits
3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned
• Intrusive guidance; parent makes decisions
Styles of Parenting: Authoritarian
1. Love. Low/not attuned
• Cold, insensitive, distant; unavailable

48. 2. Structure. High/not attuned
• Overly harsh, punitive
3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned
• Coercive; little/no choice or freedom
Is There Only One Right Way to
Parent?
• Nope - there are many ways
• Not this black and white: Parents likely shift
between or draw upon different parenting styles
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Loving and caring;
many rules and
parental guidance;
little room for

49. independence
Reserved, distant
affection; high
expectations and many
rules; little room for
self-exploration
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Loving and caring;
many rules and
parental guidance;
little room for
independence
Overprotective
Reserved, distant
affection; high
expectations and many
rules; little room for
self-exploration

50. Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Loving and caring;
many rules and
parental guidance;
little room for
independence
Overprotective
Reserved, distant
affection; high
expectations and many
rules; little room for
self-exploration
Authoritarian
Parenting Style Activity

51. Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Easy affection;
reasonable and
explained expectations;
appropriate space for
exploration and
discovery
Carefree expressions of
love; few enforced or
consistent rules; some
support for self-
expression
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Easy affection;
reasonable and
explained expectations;
appropriate space for
exploration and
discovery

52. Authoritative
Carefree expressions of
love; few enforced or
consistent rules; some
support for self-
expression
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Easy affection;
reasonable and
explained expectations;
appropriate space for
exploration and
discovery
Authoritative
Carefree expressions of
love; few enforced or

53. consistent rules; some
support for self-
expression
Indulgent
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Manipulative displays
of affection; strict
enforcement of a single
rule; uninterested in
development of self
Loving affection; high
expectations and strict
rules; limited
allowance for
independence
Parenting Style Activity

54. Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Manipulative displays
of affection; strict
enforcement of a single
rule; uninterested in
development of self
Overprotective;
neglectful
Loving affection; high
expectations and strict
rules; limited
allowance for
independence
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Manipulative displays
of affection; strict
enforcement of a single

55. rule; uninterested in
development of self
Overprotective;
neglectful
Loving affection; high
expectations and strict
rules; limited
allowance for
independence
Authoritative;
authoritarian
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Most promising outcomes: Authoritative
• Independent, resilient, confident
• Warm, friendly, ‘happy’ (high positive/low negative
affect)
• More skillful in relationships with friends, parents

56. • Less risk of behavioral issues
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Highest risk for maladaptive outcomes: Neglectful
• Poorer management of emotions, behaviors; more
aggressive, hostile, impulsive
• Inhibited, withdrawn; lower social competence
• Adolescence: Higher risk of behavioral issues
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Indulgent parenting
• Self-centered, aimless, irresponsible
• Low independence, achievement
• Overprotective parenting
• Low independence, self-confidence; other-directed
• Immature; not ready for real world
• Adolescence: Resistance, rebellion

57. Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Authoritarian parenting
• Low independence; other-directed
• Higher anxiety, fearfulness; higher unhappiness
• Lower social competence
• Aggression/bullying
A Note on Variation
• Significant variation in effects of parenting styles
• Effects vary by culture, ethnicity, other contexts
• Example: Authoritarian style predicts higher
academic achievement in Asian- and African-
American youth than authoritative parenting
Developmental Systems View of

58. Parenting
Developmental Systems View of
Parenting
Transactional Model
Developmental Systems View of
Parenting
Transactional Model Over Time
Developmental Systems View of
Parenting
Transactional Model Over Time

59. Transactional Model Over Time & Embedded in
Multiple Contexts
Developmental Systems View of
Parenting
Parent
Child
Parent
Parent
Child
Parent
Extended Family
Society

60. Developmental Systems View of
Parenting
Summary: Developmental Systems
View of Parenting
1. Parenting is transactional
2. Parenting ‘style’ may develop, change over time
3. Co-parent relationship influences child
4. Parenting shaped by many higher-order systems
5. Extended family is also part of system
6. Biggest risk factor for poor parenting: Poverty
Divorce
Marital Conflict
• Healthy, skillful conflict is okay (and going to
happen)

61. • Harmful forms of conflict: Arguing, fighting, yelling
• Very hard on children - ESPECIALLY young children
• Enormous amount of data on this
• Results are conclusive enough to view this as a subtle
form of abuse/family violence
What is Divorce?
• Divorce. Legal ending of marriage
• United States has highest divorce rate in world
• Rates increased sharply from 1960 to 1985
• 45% of marriages end in divorce; half involve children
• 67% of divorcees remarry
Divorce is a Process of Change
• Divorce is not a single event; it is a series of
complex (and stressful) events
• Begins with conflict
• Both partners have practical and emotional difficulties

62. • Psychological stress = Less psychological resources
• Short-term costs: High
• Long-term costs: It depends
How Does Divorce Affect
Children?
IT DEPENDS
• Many factors influence how a child adapts to
divorce
• Child’s characteristics, parent’s characteristics, social
supports, etc.
• Nature of relationship between separated parents
Short-Term Consequences
Short-term is rough on children
• Loss of a parent/parenting unit
• Conflict between parents
• Change in income, resources, supports

63. • Significant changes, disruptions
• Patterns, routines change
Berk, 2014, p. 274-276
Short-Term Consequences
• Parenting styles may change
• May become harsh, inconsistent
• May become lax, inconsistent
• Children react to these changes, disruptions with
anger, frustration, distress
Short-Term Consequences
Variations by child characteristics
• Gender differences:
• Harder for males (remarriage harder for females)
• Males à externalizing behaviors
• Females à internalizing behaviors

64. Short-Term Consequences
Variation by child characteristics
• Age differences:
• Younger children often blame
themselves
• Older children may rally; at risk for
being overwhelmed
• Temperament differences:
• ‘Easy’ children: Less likely to be
targets of parent’s anger
• ‘Difficult’ children: More often target
of parent’s anger
Long-Term Consequences

65. Children are typically resilient to divorce
• Children generally recover well
• There can be lingering (small) effects
• Lower school achievement
• Psychological issues (internalizing/externalizing)
• Effects often persist well into adulthood
• Unclear if effects are due to divorce or events leading to
divorce
Long-Term Consequences
Parental
conflict
à Divorce à
Long-term
effects
No parental
conflict

66. à No divorce à
Long-term
effects
Long-Term Consequences
Parental
conflict
à Divorce à
Long-term
effects
Parental
conflict
à No divorce à
Long-term
effects

67. No parental
conflict
à No divorce à
Long-term
effects
Factors That Influence Effects
1. Adequate financial support
2. Adequate parenting by the custodial parent
3. Adequate parenting by the non-custodial parent
Factors That Influence Effects
4. Additional social supports
• Children: friends, support-groups
• Parents: friends, family

68. 5. Minimize additional stressors
• Other stressors include moving, changing schools, losing
contact with grandparents, etc.
Factors That Influence Effects
6. Quality of the child’s relationship with the non-
custodial parent
• NOT the causal factor: Instead, it’s a marker for
• Less parental conflict
• More co-parenting
• Healthy child-parent relationship (before divorce)
• Financial support
• Maturity
Child Maltreatment

69. Introduction
• Child maltreatment. “Behavior toward a
child which is
• (a) outside the norms of conduct, and
• (b) entails a substantial risk of causing
physical or emotional harm.
• Behaviors...consist of
• Actions and omissions,
• Ones that are are intentional and ones that
are unintentional.”
(Child Trends, 2016, p. 8)
Definitions
• Child abuse. “Words or overt actions that cause
harm, potential harm, or threat of harm.” (CDC, 2016)
• Physical abuse
• Sexual abuse

70. • Emotional/psychological abuse
• Child neglect. “Failure to provide needs or to
protect from harm or potential harm.” (CDC, 2016)
• Physical, emotional, medical, educational neglect
• Inadequate supervision
• Exposure to violent environments
Definitions
• Physical abuse. Assaults (such as kicking, biting, shaking,
punching, or stabbing) that inflict physical injury
• Emotional abuse. Acts that could cause serious mental or
behavioral disorders, including social isolation, repeated
unreasonable demands, ridicule, humiliation, intimidation,
or terrorizing
• Sexual abuse. “Any completed or attempted
(noncompleted) sexual act, sexual contact with, or
exploitation (i.e., noncontact sexual interaction) of a child by
a caregiver.” (CDC, 2008)

71. Berk, 2014, p. 220
Rates of Maltreatment
• 3.8 million maltreatment allegations were
investigated
• 686,000 were substantiated
• 78% neglect
• 18% physical abuse
• 9% sexual abuse
• 81.5% of maltreated children were abused by
parent(s)
Child Trends, 2016
Rates of Maltreatment
Maltreatment Differences by Age

72. Risk Factors for Maltreatment
• 1950’s: Psychopathology (nature)
• 1970’s: Circumstances (e.g., poverty; nurture)
• Current model: Complex interplay of child,
caregiver, and social factors
• Child characteristics
• Parent characteristics
• Community
• Culture
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
Child characteristics
• Child is premature, sick, or temperamentally
difficult
• Child has other physical, cognitive, or emotional

73. issues
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
Parent characteristics
• Self-regulation issues (e.g., struggle with impulse
control)
• Lack of knowledge of child, child development
• Biased thinking about child, their behaviors
• Baby’s crying attributed to bad disposition
• Toddler’s disobedience attributed to stubbornness, lack
of discipline
• Substance abuse
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
Community characteristics
• Social isolation (lack ‘lifeline’ to others; no one to

74. turn to)
• Unstable/unsafe, poorly resourced neighborhoods
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
“Low-income, low education (less than a high school
diploma), unemployment, alcohol and drug use,
overcrowded living conditions, frequent moves, and
extreme household disorganization are common in
abusive homes.” (Wekerle et al., 2007; Wulczyn, 2009; as cited
in Berk, 2012, p. 220)
Poverty
• Poverty. A state of being poor
• Lack of money à less access to resources
• Strongest predictor of child maltreatment (~ 80% of
reported cases occur within poverty context)

75. • Represents a unique combination of multiple risk
factors
• High stress, lack of sleep (e.g., working multiple jobs)
• Less access to medical, educational, social resources
• Communities are less safe
• … And many more
“The Environment of Childhood
Poverty” Evans (2004)
“Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities.
Compared with their economically advantaged counterparts,
they
are exposed to more family turmoil, violence, separation from
their
families, instability, and chaotic households. Poor children
experience less social support, and their parents are less
responsive and more authoritarian. Low-income children are
read
to relatively infrequently, watch more TV, and have less access
to
books and computers. Low-income parents are less involved in
their children’s school activities. The air and water poor
children

76. consume are more polluted. Their homes are more crowded,
noisier, and of lower quality. Low-income neighborhoods are
more
dangerous, offer poorer municipal services, and suffer greater
physical deterioration. Predominantly low-income schools and
day
care are inferior. The accumulation of multiple environmental
risks
rather than singular risk exposure may be an especially
pathogenic
aspect of childhood poverty.”
Child Neglect
• Child neglect. “Failure to provide needs or to
protect from harm or potential harm.” (CDC, 2016)
• Physical, emotional, medical, educational neglect
• Inadequate supervision
• Exposure to violent environments
Video: The Science of Neglect

77. • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF3j5UVCSCA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF3j5UVCSCA
Overview of Consequences
• Children are harmed by
1. Actions. The things they experience in an
abusive/neglectful environment
2. Omissions. The things an abusive/neglectful
environment prevents them from experiencing
Consequences
Impairs physical, cognitive development
• Physical development
• Affects nervous system, immune systems
• Calibrates stress response system to be over/under-

78. active
• Cognitive development
• Affects self-concept, academic motivation
• Affects memory, self-regulation skills involved in learning
Consequences
Impairs emotional, social development
• Emotional development
• Affects emotional self-regulation skills
• Depression, anxiety, aggression, other behavioral issues
• Social development
• Social skills: Not learning healthy ways to interact
• Affects the way we perceive and interpret others’
behaviors, which affects own behaviors
Consequences

79. Long-term risk for
• Anxiety, depression, other psychological disorders
• Poorer social skills, difficulty relating to others
Consequences
Long-term risk for
• Impaired cognitive development
• Executive functioning (working memory, attention, etc.)
• Poor school motivation and performance
• Aggression, violence
• Substance abuse (self-medicating?), eating disorders
• Suicidality and self-harm
• Delinquency, violent crime
Consequences
• Many effects of abuse/neglect are stored physiologically in
the body/brain
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95ovIJ3dsNk

80. • “How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime”:
Nadine Burke Harris, M.D.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95ovIJ3dsNk
Interventions
• Provision of personal and community resources in
the form of social support, instrumental support,
education
• Ex: Provide parents with knowledge and actionable
skills
• Social skills, specific parenting skills
• Child development education
• Counseling and social services
• Reduce stigma of seeking help
Interventions

81. • Parents Anonymous
• For parents who have abused children: Daily group
meetings, daily phone calls, regular home visits
• Teach parenting skills; reduces social isolation
• Healthy Families America
• Identifies at-risk families at birth
• 3 years of home visitation
• Improves neglect rates; with cognitive component,
improves abuse rates
Berk, 2014, p. 221-222
Unit 4: Family Review
• Parenting
• Love, structure,
autonomy support
• Five parenting styles
• Long-term

82. consequences
• Systems critique
• Divorce
• Definition
• Short- and long-term
consequences
• Variations and
influences
• Child Maltreatment
• Risk factors
• Poverty
• Consequences
• Interventions
1
Option 2: Promoting Development

83. 1. Introduction
→ Briefly (~3-5 sentences) describe what your paper will be
about.
5 pts,
~1
paragraph.
2. Describe topic
Summarize the topic, including each of the underlined portions
(listed below) for your chosen topic.
→ Describe whose development you want to promote. Describe
the context in which you want to
promote or optimize development (e.g., home, school). And
explain why you think it is important to
promote development in that context.
40 pts total,
~2+ pages.

84. 3. Apply three concepts from class/textbook
Pick three key concepts from class that relate to your topic and
explore them in more depth.
→ 5 pts . Name and correctly define the concept, in your own
words. Cite your source.
→ 5 pts . Explain how the concept relates to your overall topic
and why it matters.
→ 5 pts . Discuss how the concept can be used to describe
development (what develops), explain
development (why it develops), and/or optimize development
(promote healthy development) in
your topic.
Example. You might use your knowledge about the concepts of
mindsets to consider how to
communicate with young children such that they develop a
growth mindset rather than a fixed mindset;
what impacts might this have on their development?
Example concepts: Self-regulation, mindsets, maternal stress
and nutrition, poverty, attachment,
parenting dimensions, parenting styles, internal working

85. models, peer influences, divorce, child
neglect, theory of mind, early childhood education, teacher
expectancy effects, intelligence, gender
identity development, play, vocational development; any theory
covered in class or in your book (e.g.,
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development; Piaget’s theory
of cognitive development).
45 pts (15
points per
concept)
~2+ pages.
4. Connect to meta-theoretical assumptions
How do meta-theories and their corresponding assumptions
inform your topic? Pick at least two meta-
theoretical assumptions (e.g., nature and/or nurture; active
and/or passive; stability and/or change;
universal and/or context specific) and explore them in more
depth.
5 pts. Name and correctly define the assumption. Cite your
source.

86. 5 pts. Explain how the assumption relates to something that
came up in your topic and why the
assumption is/was important in that situation (e.g. did your
topic describe continuous or
discontinuous development? How did that impact your topic?).
5 pts. Describe how something that came up in your topic might
have been different with a different
viewpoint/answer to the same assumption (e.g. if your topic had
an example of continuous
development, how would that example be different if the
development was discontinuous instead?).
You may choose to write about how things would be different if
something/somebody in your topic
had a different viewpoint, or if you had a different viewpoint.
Example. You might connect to assumptions about mindsets or
self-regulation (i.e., your own, your
parents, society) to consider the messages they give and
whether they make it harder or easier to
promote development.

87. 30 pts (15
pts per
assumption)
~1+ pages
2
5. Conclusion
5 pts. Briefly summarize what you discussed in the paper;
5 pts. Note something you learned/ found interesting/were
surprised by/will take away from this
project.
10 pts total,
~1
paragraph

88. 6. Writing Quality
5 pts: Formatting
→ 5-7 pages (without references), 12-point, Times New Roman
font; double-spaced; 1-inch margins.
5 pts: Technical proficiency and professionalism:
→ Proofread. Use full sentences, correct spelling, grammar and
punctuation.
→ The tone of your paper does not need to be highly formal, but
should convey your careful thought
about the topic.
5 pts: Clarity of ideas
→ Use headings to organize sections of the paper and
information within sections.
→ Each paragraph should be about only one main idea.
→ Each paragraph should have a topic sentence explaining that
idea.
5 pts: Attribution of sources
→ For any information that’s not your own experience/opinion
or common knowledge, you must
attribute sources (sources include but are not limited to
interviews, research papers, websites,

89. lecture slides, textbook).
→ You must restate quotations in your own words. Quotations
should be used as illustrations of your
point; you still need to make the point yourself. While brief
quotations may be used, extensive
blocks of text quoted from another source do not count towards
either the definition requirements
or the page length requirement.
→ Attribute the source of your information in any way that
allows the reader to find the source of the
material on his or her own. You may use any method of citation
that you like. For example, you
could say, “as defined in the lecture slides on parenting…,” or
“as described on the program’s
website (www.hypotheticalprogram.com)...,” or “The study
(Marquez, 2000) found…,” or simply
“My grandmother said…”.
→ If you conduct an interview: It is generally a good idea not to
reveal names or identities of interview
subjects unless you have their permission to do so. Please
consider giving them a pseudonym.

90. 20 pts total