Tweet Acts: How constituents lobby Congress via Twitter
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Twitter is increasingly becoming a medium through which constituents can lobby their elected representatives in Congress about issues that matter to them. Past research has focused on how citizens communicate with each other or how members of Congress (MOCs) use social media in general; our research examines how citizens communicate with MOCs. We contribute to existing literature through the careful examination of hundreds of citizen-authored tweets and the development of a categorization scheme to describe common strategies of lobbying on Twitter. Our findings show that contrary to past research that assumed citizens used Twitter to merely shout out their opinions on issues, citizens utilize a variety of sophisticated techniques to impact political outcomes. The Data: http://repository.iit.edu/handle/10560/3057 The Paper: http://repository.iit.edu/handle/10560/3195
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Tweet Acts: How constituents lobby Congress via Twitter
- 1. Libby Hemphill (@libbyh) Andrew Roback (@andrew0writer) Illinois Institute of Technology
- 3.  How do citizens and elected officials engage one another online?  Officials  Hemphill, L., Otterbacher, J., and Shapiro, M.A. (2013) What’s Congress Doing on Twitter? Proceedings of the 2013 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, San Antonio, TX.  Otterbacher, J., Shapiro, M.A., Hemphill, L. (2013) Interacting or Just Acting? A Case Study of European, Korean, and American Politicians’ Interactions with the Public on Twitter. Journal of Contemporary Eastern Asia, 12(1), 5-20.  Citizens  Roback, A. and Hemphill, L. (2013) “I’d have to vote against you”: Issue Campaigning via Twitter. Extended Abstracts of the ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, San Antonio, TX.
- 4.  How do citizens and public officials engage one another online?  Shout opinions (Parmelee and Bichard, 2011)  Talk to other citizens (Mascara, Black, and Goggins, 2012)  Provide information (Golbeck, Grimes, and Rodgers, 2010; Hemphill, Otterbacher, and Shapiro, 2013)
- 5.  Evidence that citizens are actually trying to effect change  Codebook for analyzing lobbying tweets  Training data for automated coding algorithm
- 7.  directives attempt to get the listener to do something  commissives commit the speaker to a course of action  representatives serve to report on the state of the world  expressives express a speaker's emotional state  declarations change the state of a person or object  questions attempt to solicit information from the hearer
- 9.  76,454 tweets  43,079 users  556 Congressional targets
- 10. Obama announces end of deportation of DREAMers Rep. Lamar Smith (R-TX) introduces SOPA SOPA/PIPA 10/26/2011 Blackout Oct Dec Feb 2012 Apr 12/31/2012 Jun Aug Oct Sikh Temple Aurora theater 6/28/2012 House holds A.G. Holder in contempt 1/29/2013 11/6/2012 8/5/2012 7/20/2012 Obama's "Four Part Plan" speech Election Day 6/15/2012 1/18/2012 2011 Fiscal cliff deadline 2013 Dec 12/14/2012 Sandy Hook 11/14/2012 Congressional Report on gun control 10/16/2012 ObamaRomney debate gun control
- 11. Issue Hashtags Immigration reform #immigration 4845 3083 #dreamact 2591 1838 #dreamers 3175 2495 13,249 8767 #fiscalcliff 978 674 #sequestration 914 647 #guncontrol 1743 733 #2ndamendment 1443 1014 #nra 1819 747 #sopa 36,985 21,265 #pipa 25,009 15,633 5498 3712 76,454* 43,079* Federal budget and sequester Gun control Internet freedom #budget #cispa Total Tweets Users
- 13.  Iterative coding on 300 tweets (268 unique)  625 additional tweets  Codebook and data:  http://repository.iit.edu/handle/1056 0/3057
- 15. Tweet act SA Type Directly oppose/support Promotional FYI Thank you for opposing/supporting Other Campaign ad accusation Loaded policy question Rhetorical question Please oppose/support Disappointed General directive What is your position? I want a response from you I'd have to vote against you I'm your constituent and I oppose/support Analogy D R D E N/A R Q Q D E D Q E C R R N % 108 85 75 66 17 14 12 11 48 46 39 33 27 20 18 18 14 14 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 3 3 2 2 1 5 1 Doing things with tweets C = Commissive D = directive E = expressive R = Representative Q = Question
- 16. Brendan Edwards @ShinerRock @repkenmarchant @johncornyn @kaybaileyhutch Don't use cybersecurity threats to trample on civil liberties. Stop #CISPA! #CongressTMI 8:07 PM – 9 May 2012 < attempt to get the listener to do something
- 17. 99% Texas @anonymousatx2 @LamarSmithTX21 my relatives live in your district and i will do everything possible to make sure you are not reelected #NDAA #SOPA #PIPA 12:02 AM – 2 Jan 2012 commit the speaker to a course of action
- 18. Nancy @FairTaxNancy @RepSteveStivers Voted "yes" in your #AZ #immigration poll. And I am a voting Buckeye here in our great state of #Ohio 4:32 PM – 26 Apr 2012 < report on the state of the world
- 19. Ann Guhin @AnnGuhin @SteveKingIA on @cspan about #immigration he makes ashamed to be an Iowan 1:23 PM – 14 May 2013 express a speaker's emotional state
- 20. Aaron Bartlett @aaronazbartlett @SenJohnMcCain What is your view of President Obama's Announcement today #DreamAct 1:23 PM – 14 May 2013 solicit information from the hearer
- 21. Directly oppose/support Former Embryo @burnfar @ChuckSchumer I Demand you OPPOSE S. 3414 and S.A. 2575! These amendments are a WAR ON MY #2ndAmendment! WE ARE MANY & WE ARE WATCHING YOU! 9:30 AM - 31 Jul 2012 Please oppose/support Richard Ulsh @4xUlsh @GerryConnolly @MarkWarner I urge you both to please stop or at the very least postpone #Sequestration for the sake of #nationalsecurity 6:45 PM – 1 Apr 2012
- 22. Promotion Maria Ines Zamudio @mizamudio @LuisGutierrez said “But it is a battle I am still fighting.” of deportations outside #immigration court bit.ly/1336dNm 12:59 PM - 5 May 2013 Campaign Ad Accusation PatRCO @patrco @KellyAyotte has been used by @SenJohnMcCain @GrahamBlog & the #NRA. Let her stand alone and explain where SHE stands. 4:08 PM - 14 May 2013
- 23. I’d have to vote against you I’m your constituent, and I oppose grant williams jsingleterry @my2bits4u @jsingleterry @JohnBoozman You had your chance to do right you chose not to . You will be punished at the ballot box . You have #nospine #nra @ChrisVanHollen I live in Rockville, and I urge you to stop cuts to EPA, CDC and NIH. Don't let our lungs go off the #fiscalcliff #callinday 11:09 AM - 18 Apr 2013 9:28 AM - 20 Feb 2013
- 25.  Ever? Yes. But not really.  76,454 lobbying tweets:  125 replies (0.16%)  34 members (6%)
- 26. Tweet act SA Type Directly oppose/support Promotional FYI Thank you for opposing/supporting Other Campaign ad accusation Loaded policy question Rhetorical question Please oppose/support Disappointed General directive What is your position? I want a response from you I'd have to vote against you I'm your constituent and I oppose/support Analogy D R D E N/A R Q Q D E D Q E C R R N % 108 85 75 66 17 14 12 11 48 46 39 33 27 20 18 18 14 14 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 3 3 2 2 1 5 1 Doing things with tweets C = Commissive D = directive E = expressive R = Representative Q = Question
- 28.  How would we even measure “efficacy” of a lobbying tweet?  What illocutionary force do automated tweets have, and who is the speaker for those tweets?
- 29.  How should we be citing tweets in publications?  What obligations do researchers have with respect to Twitter’s TOS and brand guidelines?  What responsibilities do we have to users?
- 30. • Libby Hemphill (libby.hemphill@iit.edu; @libbyh) • Andrew Roback (aroback@iit.edu; @andrew0writer) Illinois Institute of Technology http://www.casmlab.org/projects/publicofficials/ https://twitter.com/CaSMLab/lists Thank you, Amazon in Education Research Grants Program.
- 32.  The Day We Fight Back  With Ed Lee (author of The Fight for the Future)  Non-profits  Andrew Roback’s examining how NPOs use Twitter to organize and build support  Fans, fandom, and identity  Rizzoli and Isles, #gayzzoli  Social Media Data Toolkit  Make social media data available to everyone (read: those who don’t code)
- 33.  General directive  FYI  Directly oppose/support  Please oppose/support attempt to get the listener to do something
- 34.  I’d have to vote against you… commit the speaker to a course of action
- 35.  Promotional  Campaign ad accusation  Analogy  I’m your constituent, and I oppose report on the state of the world
- 36.  Thank you for opposing/supporting  I want a response from you  Disappointed express a speaker's emotional state
- 37.  What is your position?  Rhetorical question  Loaded policy question solicit information from the hearer
Hinweis der Redaktion
- Qualitative analysis + machine learning for automated codingStarted by examining the officials’ side – do they use Twitter, what do they do there, how does the U.S. compare to other representative governmentsBig question is whether any of this actually produces political change – the “holy grail” that some reviewers wanted, probably more a “purple squirrel”
- Turning to the citizen sideLarge scale survey dismissed citizen contributions as “soapboxing” or just shouting opinions to an uninterested audienceMascaro and colleagues analyzed the tweets during the Wisconsin recall debacle and found citizens do talk to each otherWe know officials like to give out information via TwitterParmelee and Bichard are dismissive of citizen’s actions, focus on their passive receptions (followings)
- Let’s look at what they say
- Illocutionary force – what the speaker does in speakingDeclarations – e.g., “I resign” changes one’s status as an employeeDifferences in illocutionary forceHow the utterance relates to other discourse (Searle, 1976)Audience – Twitter allows both immediate and asynchronous discourse, at once both public and private. We focus on the illocutionary actions directed towards members of Congress, but by doing these tweet acts publicly, users also direct some amount of energy toward the public audience.
- Some tweets contained more than one of the hashtags we tracked; some users posted more than one tweet
- Some tweets contained multiple hashtags, and some users posted more than one tweet. These numbers represent unique tweets and unique users.DREAM Act Development, Relief, and Education Act for Alien Minors; first introduced in 2001 by Sens. Durbin (D-IL) and Hatch (R-UT)Provides permanent residency to minors who have lived in the U.S. for at least 5 years provided they complete 2 years of military service or 2 years of collegeLast introduced in 2011 by Sen Reid (D-NV) but still went no whereJune 15, 2012 Obama announced he’d stop deporting people according to the criteria of the failed DREAM ActFederal budgetSequester were automatic spending cuts required by the Budget Control Act of 2011Fiscal cliff January 2013, end of Bush-era tax cuts and 111th Congress’s failure to pass a budgetManage to pass a bill to delay sequestration from Jan 1, 2013 – March 1, 2013Debt ceiling also involved, was eventually suspended from Feb – May 2013Gun controlFast and Furious debate during the 112th Congress Giffords (Jan 8, 2011), Aurora theater (July 20, 2012), Sikh Temple in Wisconsin (Aug 5, 2012), Sandy Hook (Dec 14, 2012) shootings reignited gun control conversationJun 28, 2012 House cites A.G. Holder for contemptOct 16, 2012 Obama and Romney debate gun control at the Hofstra town hall debateNov 14, 2012 Congressional Research Service report issued (http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32842.pdf)Internet FreedomSOPA/PIPA (Stop Online Piracy Act and Protect IP Act)Crack down on sites that host or facilitate trading of copyrighted contentInternet blackout on Jan 18, 2012Both bills stalled Jan 20, 2012CISPA (Cyber Intelligence Sharing and Protection Act)Amendment to the National Security Act of 1947Allows tech companies, including ISPs, to share traffic info with the governmentPassed the House twice, stalled in the Senate
- Even “tweet acts” seemed too general. Missed nuances between “direct” and “polite” support, for instance. Or “campaign ad accusation” and “promotion” tweets.
- General directiveFYIDirectly oppose/supportPlease oppose/support
- I’d have to vote against you…Anonymousatx2 – changed name since, now says Br3wCr3w
- PromotionalCampaign ad accusationAnalogyI’m your constituent, and I opposeThis is a reply to Stivers tweet
- Thank you for opposing/supportingI want a response from youDisappointed
- What is your position?Rhetorical questionLoaded policy question
- @4xUlsh is a different user now (Twitter doesn’t tell me whether it’s reopened or a new person)
- Vote: commits user to an actionI’m your constituent: implies consequences
- Distinguishing illocutionary forces – what the speaker does in speakingFYI: YouTube video from The Innovation Movement, a immigration reform lobbying groupPromotion: An opinion piece about sequestration authored by Rep. Buck McKeon (R-CA) at Politico
- Even “tweet acts” seemed too general. Missed nuances between “direct” and “polite” support, for instance. Or “campaign ad accusation” and “promotion” tweets.
- CongressTMIFight for the Future
- Twitter’s guidelinesAPA, MLA guidelines