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African red palm oil sold in Europe as ethnic foods
- 1. Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences (DIAAA), University of Molise, Via De Sanctis,86100 Campobasso, Italy *antomac@unimol.it
- 2. Extra virgin olive oil = main component of the Mediterranean diet
- 3. West African Red Palm Oil (RPO)
- 4. Elaeis guineensis PRODUCTION OF PALM OIL - FAOSTAT.ORG - (million ton)
- 5. about RPO: - fruits of variety Dura - palm trees are extensively cultivated - small-scale oil manufacture Refined Palm Oil vs West African Red Palm Oil
- 6. Virgin Olive Oil West African Red Palm Oil (RPO) Industrial Refined Palm Oil Both are: Ethnic food Oleaginous fruits Virgin oils
- 7. Both are ethnic food oils Ethnic foods are unconventional foods produced traditionally in restricted geographical areas and consumed by limited population groups IMMIGRANTS ETHNIC FOOD STORES EUROPEAN CONSUMERS ETHNIC FOODS BECOME MAINSTREAM LOCAL FOODS Reg.UE 258/97; 2283/2015
- 8. Both are virgin oils VOO (cold process) vs. RPO (hot process) Oil palm processing traditional small scale mill medium scale mill Large industrial mill Crude palm oil for refining 90 – 140 °C
- 14. X 3 Investigation on RPO samples purchased in Rome and Dublin ethnic stores About labels: non-compliant UE rules 100% pure or virgin oil vitamin A and E attractive to Western consumers
- 15. Results hydrolytic alteration oxidative alterationBasic oil quality parameters Free acidity % as oleic acid Peroxide value meqO2/KG
- 16. manual from the trees 2 -3 days Triacylglycerols 93.5% Diacylglycerols 5.8% Monoacylgyicerols 0.7% Free acidity Min 8.5 Mean 11.6 Max 14.8 0 4 8 12 16 Free acidity (% as oleic acid) OEVO OVO RPO 2
- 17. Min 3.0 Mean 9.4 Max 17.2 0 5 10 15 20 RPO peroxide value (meqO2/kg) Oxidation grade of oils
- 18. Min 3.0 Mean 9.4 Max 17.2 0 5 10 15 20 RPO peroxide value (meqO2/kg) Oxidation grade of oils 446nm carotenoids 270nm secondary oxidation products 232nm conjugated dienes
- 19. in hot water or under pressurized steam (about 100 °C) in steam heated vessels (100 °C ) heating 90 °C Peroxide value high oxidative resistance Antioxidants Fatty acid composition
- 21. Antioxidants
- 22. Healt promoting functions Sundram K, et al. (1989) Cancer Res 49, 1447 Yam ML, et al. (2009) Lipids 44, 787 Budin SB, et al. (2009) Clinics 64, 235 Sen CK, et al. (2010) J Am Coll Nutr 29, 314 Ong ASH & Goh SH (2002) Food Nutr Bull 23, 11 Oguntibeju OO, et al. (2009) Br J Biomed Sci, 66, 216- food containing 15% more than 800 μg/day Retinol Equivalent Source of vitamin A food containing 15% more than 12 mg/day a-Tocopherol Equivalent Source of vitamin E Reg.UE 1169/2011 Mean of found values 5625 RE 15 TE
- 23. RPO % C16:0 38.1- 45.3 C18:0 4.7 – 5.4 C18:1 36.3 - 44.4 C18:2 8.7 - 11.3 Fatty acid composition Saturated / Unsaturated ratio = 0.9 By V.Macciola Olive oil = 0.2 Butter = 1.8 Tenera palm oil = 1.1
- 24. Oxidative stability test * De Leonardis & Macciola (2012) Food Chem, 135, 1769 0.76 1.74 0.16 0.67 0.64 7.35 5.4 1 2 3 4 5 Refined palm oil* EVOO Induction Time (hours) by Rancimat Test at 130°C Red palm oil samples
- 25. RPO deacidification on laboratory scala Three different lipid fractions RPO-U : untreated oil RPO-D : deacidified oil RPO-FFA : free fatty acid fraction
- 26. R² = 0.9707 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 ITRPO-U E232 RPO-FFA Relationship between conjugated FFA & RPO-U Induction Time 0.76 1.74 0.16 0.67 0.64 2.33 6.11 3.16 2.15 1.83 1 2 3 4 5 Induction Time (hours) by Rancimat Test at 130°C RPO-U RPO-D Red Palm Oil Effect of deacidification on RPO oxidative stability
- 27. R² = 0.9707 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 ITRPO-U E232 RPO-FFA Relationship between conjugated FFA & RPO-U Induction Time Effect of deacidification on RPO oxidative stability
- 28. Conclusion Studied West African red palm oils have: highlighted few limits and high-potential confirmed to be a good dietary fat However it is recommended: reworking traditional oil processing laying down specific rules for selling ethnic food in Europe
Hinweis der Redaktion
- My name is Antonella De Leonardis. I came from University of Molise, in Campobasso, where I deal with Food Science and Technology, in particular oils and fats.
- I live in the heart of the Mediterranean, where, the people, from ancient times, use olive oil as principal edible fat.
- But, here, I will talk about the West African red palm oil. An exotic oil that we have discovered in Europe, sold in ethnic stores and on-line. The labels of these commercial oils, underline health property and traditional origin, stimulating our curiosity, and also that of a lot of European consumers, usually attracted from exotic foods.
- It is known that the specie Elaeis guineensis is native of Guinea region, where the inhabitants, always, have used palm oil for food and medicine purposes. In the 60’s years, Africa was the first oil palm producer in the World. Nowadays, the scenario is extremely changed. In fact, in few decades, palm oil has become a very important industrial oil and today, Indonesia and Malaysia are the major producers.
- West Africa Red palm oil is very different from the refined palm oil. First evident distinction is the original red colour, completely lost with the refining. In West Africa, the fruits of indigenous variety Dura are processed, while the hybrid Tenera is cultivated in the modern Asian plantations. Palm trees grow wildly in the forestry or in extensive farming. And, the oil is extracted by follows traditional practices. A large part of the produced oil is consumed at home. However, domestic production is insufficient, and so, Africa imports nearly 60 percent of palm oil.
- Thus, West African red palm oil, appears to be more similar to virgin olive oil, than industrial palm oil. In fact, both are ethnic foods, extracted from oleaginous fruits, by using exclusively physical methods.
- The term “ethnic foods” indicates unconventional foods produced traditionally in restricted geographical regions and consumed by limited population groups. In other words, ethnic foods are foods produced and consumed locally. However, today, marketing of all kinds of food in possible everywhere in the World. Migratory flows rise the spread of ethnic food. At the beginning, the immigrants bring their foods in Europe. Over time, ethnic food demand increases, and specialized stores spring up. Thereafter, also Europeans began to eat these new exotic foods. In this way, several ethnic foods have become mainstream for many people, for exempla, couscous, soy sprouts, kebab, the same olive oil, and many others. A similar fate may be possible also for the red palm oil. In Europe, there are no specific rules for selling ethnic food, conversely there are strict rules for the so-called “novel foods”.
- Both the olive and red palm oils are virgin oils, namely, oil extracted mechanically and consumed directly without refining. However, olive oil is extracted at cold, while for the red palm oil very high temperatures are used. Commonly, in West Africa, palm oil is produced in the villages, in small farmhouse mills.
- In short, from March to May, the bunches are cut manually from the tree and dropped to the ground, causing fruit damage.
- Fresh bunches are left on soil for 2–3 days, in order to facilitate fruit detachment. This period is called “fermentation”, because microbial growth is possible on fruit surface.
- It follows sterilization and/or stripping, when the fruits are removed from the bunch and/or cooked. Sterilization has several purposes, including stopping microbial and enzymatic activity; easing fruit separation; softening of fibre; and other.
- During the next step, called "digestion", the fruits are rubbed. Commonly, digestion is carried out at 100 °C, and at the end, a homogeneous mash is obtained.
- Finally, the oil is extracted by small centrifuges, or hydraulic presses, and hot clarified from humidity and impurities.
- We have analysed red palm oils, purchased in Dublin and Rome ethnic stores. All samples have been produced in the West African region, principally in Ghana and Nigeria. Oils were packed in plastic bottles, with labels not conforming to European food labelling rules. Some appealing composition facts were underlined, for exempla, 100% virgin or pure palm oil, without additives, and the relevant presence vitamins. In some cases, "no cholesterol" or "suitable for vegetarians" was written, revealing intention to attract also the European consumers.
- We have determined several parameters, in order to highlight strengths and weaknesses of the oils. Strict laws regulate olive oil marketing is Europe, setting specific chemical and organoleptic limits. Conversely, we have not found specific limits for red palm oil, neither in Europe, neither in the original countries, apart the contractual indices, fixed for the crude palm oil, by the Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia. Free acidity and peroxide value are basic quality parameters, universally recognized. Free acidity detects an enzymatic hydrolytic alteration, leading to the formation of free fatty acids. Peroxide value is indicative of a chemical alteration, with production of reactive oxygen species.
- European limit for free acidity is 0.8% for extra virgin olive and 2% for edible oil. All oil samples shown values well above the line, ranging from about 8 to 15%. At the same time, high content of diacylglycerols, was found. Found values are incompatible with the European standards. Under a nutritional point of view, high plasma free fatty acids is associated to diabetes and obesity. Free fatty acids in the oil are the result of fruit enzymatic activity that occurs during harvesting and storage. So, by reworking these critical operations, it is surely possible to improve oil quality.
- Unlike free acidity, oil samples presented peroxide value lower the European limit.
- In addition, by the spectrophotometric analysis, we have determined conjugated dienes, secondary oxidation products, carotenoids and the DOBI index.
- Low peroxide value was a surprising feature, by considering the stress deriving from the hot extraction process. This remarkable oxidation grade is certainly due to at least two factors: plenty of antioxidant and of saturated fatty acid.
- A good content of total phenols, especially ortho-di-phenols, was obtained. However, carotenoids and tocols were more abundant, each with about 500 ppm, on average.
- Carotenoid profile was in accordance with the literature, with beta-carotene as the main component. Total tocols were the sum of tocopherols and tocotrienols, with the tocotrienols twice or higher than tocopherols.
- So, similarly to extra virgin olive oil, red palm oil preserves several fruit natural phytochemicals, which, usually, are lost with the refining. A lot of studies have associated red palm oil consumption with functional effects in several pathologies. European laws on nutritional claims are very restrictive and the producers may report on the label, ‘source of vitamin A’ or ‘source of vitamin E’, only on foods containing 15% more than Recommended Daily Allowance. Studied red palm oils satisfied abundantly these values.
- About the fatty acid composition, the more significant fatty acids were palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic. A Saturated-Unsaturated ratio of 0.9 was found; by comparison, this ratio is usually 0.2 for olive oil, 1.8 for milk butter, and 1.1 for palm oil from hybrid Tenera. This particular fatty acid composition made the red palm oil semisolid at the Italian climate.
- We have studied oxidation stability of the oils under hot temperatures, with rancimat instrument, by determining the induction time, namely, the hours to which abundant rancid compounds are generated. This test has shown a disappointing oxidation stability for the purchased oils, which showed very short induction time, especially if compared with that of refined palm oil or extra virgin olive oil, in similar contitions. At the tested temperature, carotenoids depleted totally, showing a marginal antioxidant role. This low oxidation stability suggested presence of pro-oxidants in the oils.
- At this aim, we have investigated the pro-oxidant effect of free fatty acids. The oils were neutralized chemically, obtaining three different lipid fractions: the untreated original oil; the deacidified oil counterpart, cleaned of the free fatty acids; and finally, the free fatty acid fraction. After the treatment, peroxide value, carotenoids and tocols, unchanged, while the conjugated dienes decreased, and the DOBI index increased. In addition, the lipid fractions shown a similar fatty acid composition, evidencing a random, non-selective activity of palm fruit lipases.
- The removing of free fatty acid, improved clearly the oxidation stability of the oils. In fact, a remarkable extension of the induction time has obtained in the deacidified oils.
- In addition, a very close linear relationship between induction time and conjugated free fatty acids was found. In other words, conjugated free fatty acid appeared to be more pro-oxidant than peroxide radicals, reinforcing the importance of free fatty acid control.
- Going to the end, the purchased West African red palm oils, highlighted few limits and high-potential, confirming to be good dietary fat, appealing also to the Europeans. However, it is recommended, reworking the traditional oil processing, so how, laying down specific rules for selling ethnic food in Europe.