Water and land are the major ingredients in the livelihoods of people globally. Only about 10% of the total area is suitable for agriculture in Swaziland, where over 95% of the water resources are used for irrigation. Visible on the livelihoods of the population are the symptoms of the adverse effects of recurrent droughts, which are associated with climate change. Small-scale farmers in particular have limited resources to cultivate large portions of their arable land. Hence there is a notable realization that there are key economic areas- water, agriculture, forestry and energy- in which managed or policy driven climate change adaptation strategies are necessary. A study was carried out to document perceptions of Swazi farmers regarding the effects of climate change on their livelihoods and to identify water and land use technologies for climate change adaptation. Two instruments were used to gather data through interviews using focus group technique (FGT). The findings indicate that Swazi farmers are stretched to the limit of their capability. Climate change has imposed the need for farmer creativity and to search for alternative strategies to source water and use land more judiciously. July rains (imbotisamahlanga in SiSwati) used to help decompose crop residues; August rains facilitated early planting but there is no more consistency in the rains. The frequent droughts and a shift in rains has made it difficult to grow a wide range of crops; reduced production and increased levels of poverty along with food insecurity. Farmers have responded through water technologies, especially irrigation (to cope with water stresses) and, to a major extent, by adopting conservation agriculture to conserve soil and improve its fertility.

1. Swazi Farmers’
Preparedness to Respond
to Climate Change in Water
and Land Use Practices
by
Qand’elihle G. S. N. Simelane, PhD
Musa M. A. Dube, PhD
Department of Agricultural Education & Extension
University of Swaziland

2. Use of Water & Land in Swaziland
Recognized land use About 10% of
categories the total area is
suitable for
 Crop agriculture agriculture
Over 95% of
 Animal husbandry
the water
 Forestry resources are
used for
 Extraction and collection irrigation
Sugarcane
 Nature protection utilizing at least
85% of it.
 Settlement and industry.

3. Impacts of Climate Change on
Livelihoods
Visible on the livelihoods of the population are the
symptoms of the adverse effects
 More extreme weather events and natural disasters
 An increase in rainfall intensity
 Crop failure resulting in food insecurity
 Water scarcity
 High frequency of water-borne and vector-borne diseases
 Invasive alien plant species and bush encroachment
 Frequent fires
 Conversion of grasslands species to trees and savannas
 Scarcity of natural resources for cultural events

4. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
ON AGRICULTURE IN
SWAZILAND
 Climate variability and change have had a great impact
on agricultural production.
 Projections suggest an increase in temperature in all
agro-ecological zones of Swaziland and there will be no
significant change in the total annual rainfall
 The rainfall season is henceforth characterised by late
onset and early cessation.
 Cumulative rainfall in some parts of the country is often
sufficient to sustain crop growth when planting is done in
time.
 Analysis showed that climate change in Swaziland will
affect different crops differently, depend on the region
and period of planting.

5. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES
To elicit farmers’ opinions regarding their response to
climate change, in terms of water and land use practices
in Swaziland.
Document perceptions of Swazi farmers regarding
the effects of climate change on their livelihoods.
Identify water and land use technologies which
Swazi farmers have used to adapt to climate
change.
Identify sources of the technologies in water and
land use farmers have used to respond to climate
change.
Describe relationship between Swazi farmers and
their perceptions of how they coped with climate
change.

6. METHODOLOGY
 Study Population
 Instrument Development
 Data Collection
 Ethical Considerations
 Limitations of the Study

7. FINDINGS
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
FARMERS
 Most of the respondent farmers were married (n= 58, 90.77%) and
only 9.23% (n=6) were single.
 A total of 75% of the farmers had families constituted of by 12
members, with an equal number of both male and females.
 The youngest among the farmers was 19 years of age and the
eldest 81 years.
 Most of the commercial farmers (87.5%) were either below 35 or
above 62 years of age.
 Most of the farmers were full time farmers (n=60, 83.33%), with
families of an average of 9.75 people and the two largest families
hosted up to 29 individuals.
The family size and dynamics indicate the size of
labour endowment in the family, especially
amongst the subsistence farmers.

8. FARMERS’ EDUCATION LEVEL &
SOURCES OF INCOME
Sources of income of the
farmers
Sources of Part time Full time
income
Govt grant 5 25
Business 12 60
Salary 3 15

9. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS
EFFECTS ON FARMERS’
LIVELIHOODS
July rains used to help decompose crop residues;
august rains facilitated early planting: no more
consistency in the rains.
 Effects on rainfall and water supply
 Effects on cropping patterns and cycles
 Effects on overall production
The drought and shift of rains has created
difficulty in planning; made it difficult to grow a
wide range of crops; reduced production,
increased levels of poverty along with food
insecurity in the country. And life is challenging.

10. WATER AND LAND USE
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
TECHNOLOGIES
Land use Technologies Water Technologies
Fertiliser application o Irrigation systems- furrow;
Manuring, soil testing sprinkler, trickle or drip
Tractor hire o Water pumps
Crop rotation, Mulching o Tank
Conservation agriculture o Water recycling
Use of fertiliser o Community water system
Ploughing just after harvesting o Earth dams, wells
Winter ploughing, liming o Water Harvesting
Disc harrow to chop stover o Dams, pipes installed
Tree planting, cover cropping o Watering basins around plants

11. SOURCES OF TECHNOLOGIES
 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to the
farmers was limited and provided by ACAT,
World Vision, Chinese Scheme and COPSE.
 General sources of technologies adopted by
farmers included the Ministry of Agriculture
(MoA), Swaziland Water Development
Enterprise (SWADE), colleague farmers and
fellow farmer union members, neighbours,
community members

12. SOURCES OF WATER USED BY
FARMERS
Sources Subsistence Semi- Commercial All Cumulative
commercial %
Surface (S) 5 19 4 28 52.54
Underground 3 12 0 15 77.97
(U)
Both S & U 0 3 1 4 84.75
Harvested 2 3 2 7 96.61
(H)
Waste water 1 0 0 1 98.31
(W)
Both H & W o 1 0 1 100.00
Total 11 27 7 55
• The adoption and use of water technologies dates further back than land
technologies.
• A quarter of the respondent farmers reported having used them for 3.5 years.
• Three in four of the farmers had used water technologies for 21.0 years.

13. Perceived Advantages of the
Adopted Irrigation Technologies
o Effective; uses water efficiently; moisture
retention; no waste of water
o Reduces production cost,
o Water conservation
o Retains moisture; reduced production
costs; increased yields
o Multi tasking; timely

14. Crop Changes Associated with
Water and Land Use Technologies
Increased productivity
Improvement in the quality of products quality of
products
A reliable supply of water ensures that crops do
not experience water stress
When soil and water conservation
methodologies used with the effect of reduced
erosion
Improved soil fertility and fewer diseases,
farmers reported an overall increase in yields
Most farmer s produc e up to two crops a year ( n= 54,
87.1%) , the remain der produc e 3 crops annua lly.

15. DATA LIMITATIONS
Lack of records or recalling dates a challenge to
the farmers. farmers could offer estimates on:
 Capital cost of the water technology.
 The cost of maintenance of land use and water
technologies.
 Estimated and actual financial profits of the
technology.
 The increase in production due to the technology.
 Changes in crops produced caused by land
technology.
 The value of NGO support technology.

16. CONCLUSIONS
Climate change adaptation farm practices in Swaziland predate
climate change adaptation science, and this is based on the dating
of these activities, the first Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) assessment report and the National Climate
Change Committee in Swaziland.
Farmer responses have shown that the risks and challenges
associated with climate change are serious concerns to farmers.
And often the farmers innovate and share technologies horizontally
amongst themselves.
Innovative farmers also reported a wider diversity of crops including
maize and vegetables.
Water shortages, crop stresses and droughts are a greater concern
amongst the farmers and climate change scientists. Water
conservation technologies feature highly in technologies adopted
and in strategies considered by scientists.

17. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based the findings presented in the preceding sections and
the conclusions above, the following recommendations can
therefore be made:
 Improve the provision of extension
education to enlighten farmers about how
to better cope with the challenges of
climate change.
 It is necessary to prepare farmers so that
they can cope after the withdrawal of
support from government and partners.

18. IMPLICATIONS
 While farmers take up farming as a means of earning their
livelihoods, some still require external support to drive them to
innovate in their operations.
 Whereas the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC)
has been with the provision of an overall coordination and
guidance of the development and implementation of a
national climate change implementation strategy as well as
developing climate adaptation strategies to help communities
and farmers manage risk and minimize climate-driven shocks,
the farming community seems to be ahead.
 There are invaluable lessons to be learnt from these
innovators, especially with regards to the challenges with the
adoption of these technologies; the successes that can be
expected as well as ways in which they can be localised and
adapted to deliver particular levels of results.