1. UPLIFTING SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
AND RESEARCH
College of Law, Bulacan State University,
City of Malolos, Bulacan
May 4,, 2005, 8:00 a.m
ERLINDA P. VILLAMORAN, Ph. D
Director, Research Services Office
Professor, Graduate School and
College of Education
Bulacan State University
Malolos, Bulacan 3000

2. Focus of Discussion
1 Overview of Basic Concepts
 Scientific Method
 Steps in the Research Process
– Identification of Problem
– Theoretical Framework
– Research Designs and Methods
– Presentation, Analyses, and Interpretation of
Data
– Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
 Rules to Follow in Research Writing
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3. 2 Workshop Topics
1. Problem Identification
2. Definition of the General and Specific Problems
3. Preparation of the Conceptual Framework Based on
the Identified Problems
3.1 Paradigm of the Study
3.2 Hypothesis of the Study
3.3 Definition of Terms
4. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Mock
Data
III Presentation of Outputs [(4.1), (4.2), (4.3), (4.4),
(4.5)]
IV Critiquing of Outputs
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4. Scientific Research
 Scientific research is a systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses
about the presumed relations among such
phenomena.
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5. Paradigm of Inquiry in Scientific Approach
1. Problem-Obstacle-Idea – involves getting the idea out in
the open and expressing the problem in some reasonably
manageable form
2. Hypothesis - a conjectural statement, a tentative
proposition about the relation between two or more
phenomena or variables
3. Reasoning-Deduction - the scientist deduces the
consequences of the hypothesis he has formulated
4. Observation-Test-Experiment - is only part of the
scientific enterprise. If the problem has been well stated,
the hypothesis or hypotheses adequately formulated, and
the implications of the hypotheses carefully deduced, this
step is almost automatic assuming that the investigator is
technically competent.
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6. General Order of the Scientific Methods
 Identification of a problem
 Definition of the problem
 Formulation of hypotheses
 Projection of consequences
 Testing of hypotheses
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7. Steps in the Research Process
 Identifying a Problem
 Theoretical Framework
2.1 Theory Building
2.2 Review of Related Studies
2.3 Review of Related Literature
2.4 Conceptual Framework
2.5 Constructing Hypotheses
2.6 Identifying, Labeling and Controlling
Variables
2.7 Definition of Terms
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8. Steps in the Research Process
 Research Designs and Methods
3.1 Basic Research Designs
3.2 Sampling Procedure
3.3 The Collection of Data
3.4 Selecting Appropriate Statistical
Technique
 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of
Data
 Summary, Conclusions and
Recommendations
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9. Classification of Research
 Research as a formal, systematic and intensive
process of scientific investigation is always
directed toward the solution of a problem
Basic Research - it develops or enhances theories
Applied research - it tests theories and evaluate
their usefulness in solving actual problem
situations in order to improve a product or
process.
Action Research - Applied research which is
focused on immediate application.
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10. Sources of a Research Problem
 Experience and observations.
 The vast amount of literature in your own field.
 Courses that you have taken.
 Journals, books, magazines, or abstracts.
 Theses and Dissertation.
 Your Professor and Your Classmates.
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11. Elements of a Research Problem
 Aim or purpose of the problem for
investigation.
 The subject matter or topic to be investigated.
 The place or locale where the research is to be
conducted.
 The period or time of study during which data
are to be gathered.
 Population or universe from whom data are to
be collected.
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12. Criteria in the Selection of a Research
Problem
 Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary
duplication.
 Significance for the field represented and
implementation.
 Interest, intellectual, curiosity, and drive.
 Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.
 Cost and returns.
 Time factor.
 Training and personal qualification.
 Availability of data or method.
 Special equipment and working conditions.
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13. Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem
 The research problem or topic must be chosen
by the researcher himself.
 It must be within the interest of the researcher.
 It must be within the specification of the
researcher.
 It must be within the competence of the
researcher to tackle.
 It must be within the ability of the researcher to
finance.
 It is researchable and manageable.
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14. Selecting a Research Problem
 Analyzing the research problem.
 Identifying the variable.
 Stating the problem.
 Evaluating the problem.
 Setting up of a sub-problem.
 Presentation of the problem.
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15. Criteria of Problems and Problem
Statement
1. The problem should express a relation between
two or more variables. It asks, in effect, questions
like is A related to B? How are A and B related to
C? How is A related to B under conditions C and
D?
2. The problem should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in question form. Instead of saying
for instance, “The problem is . . . ,” or “The
purpose of this study is …,” ask a question.
3. The problem and the problem statement should be
such as to imply possibilities of empirical testing
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16. Significance of the Study
 Rational, timeliness and/or relevance of the
study should be clearly stated;
 Contribution to the accumulation of
knowledge, or to filling up a knowledge or gap;
 Contribution to building, validating or refining
prevailing theories;
 Contribution to meeting a pressing need of a
specific group like solving a problem or
improving certain conditions; possible
implications and;
 Contribution to refining concepts, improving
research instrumentation and methodologies.
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17. Scope/Limitations of the Study
 Scope defines the coverage or boundary of the
study in terms of the area or locality and
subjects or population covered, the duration
or period of the study and the research issues
are focused.
 Limitations are statements which alert the
reader of the research report to certain
constraints over which the researcher has no
control. It also defines the conditions beyond
the control of the researcher that may place
restrictions on the conclusions of the study
and their application or other situations.
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18. Theoretical Framework
Relevant Theory
 A theory is a set of interrelated constructs
(concepts), definitions and propositions that present
a systematic view of phenomena by specifying
relations among variables, with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the phenomena
 Sources of theories:
– Research literature and the conceptual writings in
a discipline
– If a theory did exist or was not well developed,
one could conceptualize a theory based on a
logical analysis of prior research applied to the
phenomenon under study.
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19. Theoretical Framework
Role of Theory in Research
1. Provides a framework by serving as the point
departure for the pursuit of a research
problem
2. The theory identifies the crucial factors
3. It provides a guide for systematizing and
interrelating the various facets of the
research.
4. It helps identify gaps and weak points
5. Theory may light the way for continued
research on the phenomena under study
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20. Theoretical Framework
Related Literature and Studies
 Involves the systematic identification, location
and analysis of documents containing
information on the research problem
 Literature refers to the writings of a country or
books dealing with a special subject valued as
works of arts like drama, fiction, essays, ..
etc.”, therefore all written material or article
can be called as literature.
 Related studies are investigations that are
usually published materials like manuscript,
theses, and dissertations which are conducted
previously to which the present study had
similarity and relatedness.
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21. Conceptual Framework / Variables
 Conceptual Framework - presents the
relationship between the different specific
constructs that we want to study. A construct
is a clearly defined concept.
 Variable is a characteristic that has two or
more mutually exclusive values or properties.
1. Dependent Variable (DV)
2. Independent Variable (IV)
3. Moderator Variable
4. Control Variable
5. Intervening Variable
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22. Samples of the Paradigm of the Study
SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
Independent Dependent Independent Dependent / Dependent
Variables Variables Variables Independent Variables
Variables
IV DV IV DV / IV DV
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23. Samples of the Paradigm of the Study
SAMPLE 3 SAMPLE 4
Independent Dependent INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Variables Variables
IV DV
MV Moderating
Variables
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24. Samples of the Paradigm of the Study
SAMPLE 5
Independent Dependent / Dependent
Variables Independent Variables
Variables
IV DV / IV DV
MV 1 MV 2
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25. Statistical Treatment Applicable for each
Model
 Models 1 and 2 – Correlation Coefficient with T-test
for significance of the correlation
 Models 3 and 5 – Multiple Regression Analysis and
ANOVA for Single and Combined Effects of the IV’s
on the DV(s) (t and F tests)
 Model 4 – T-test for significant difference if
applicable e.g. significant difference between
perceptions of two groups of respondents,
significant difference between pretest and posttest.
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26. Example
Teacher
Style
Students’
Student Classroom satisfaction
Personality structuring with the
Style & formality course
Subjects
Class size
Students’
age / sex
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27. Hypothesis
 Hypothesis comes from the Greek prefix “Hypo”
meaning beneath or underlying, and the Greek word
“thesis” meaning a proportion or statement that can
be supported by argument or evidence.
 It is a conjectural statement of the significant
relationship between two or more variables. It is still
doubtful and needs to be tested.
 Two types of hypothesis:
1. Null hypothesis
2. The alternative or experimental or research
hypothesis
a. Non-directional Hypothesis
b. Directional Hypothesis
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28. Functions of Hypothesis
1. Helps the researcher determine what kind of
research is to be done and what methodology
may be used;
2. Means of stating assumptions and presenting or
providing explanations;
3. Serves as determinations of the relevancy of
facts;
4. Aids the researcher present the conclusions of
the study; and
5. Provides format for the presentation, analysis and
interpretation of research data.
6. Sources for the formulation of new hypothesis.
7. Provides the link between theory and
observation;
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29. Research Methodology
 Research Designs
 Methods and Procedures
 Sources of Data
 Data Gathering Instruments
 Procedure
 Statistical Treatment Used
 Collection of Data
– Primary
– Secondary
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30. Sources of Primary Data
1. Interview
a. Personal Interview
b. Telephone Interview
c. Interviewing by Mail
2. Observation
a. Non-Behavioral Observation
i. Record Analysis
ii. Physical Condition Analysis
iii. Physical Process Analysis
b. Behavioral Observation
i. Non – Verbal Analysis
ii. Linguistic Analysis
iii. Extra – Linguistic Analysis
iv. Spatial Analysis
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31. Data Processing
 Is a means of converting information either manually or by
machine. This involves the following phases:
1. Data Coding . It is a process of grouping the response to a
question into categories and assigning numbers, characters,
and/or other symbols called codes.
2. Selecting Appropriate Statistical Method
Factors to be considered:
a. Variables – a noun that stands for variation within a class of
objects.
b. Relationship of Variables – a statement about variables; two or
more groups are compared or relationships among variables
are studied within one group
c. Measurement of Scales
d. Sample Size
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32. Measurement Scales
Measurement Characteristics
of Scales
Nominal Groups and labels data only, report
frequencies or percentages
Ordinal Ranks data; uses numbers only to
indicate ranking
Interval Assumes the difference between
scores of equal magnitude really
mean equal differences in the variable
measured; (actual number)
Ratio All of the above, plus true zero point
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33. Commonly Used Statistical Analyses
 Descriptive Statistics - one (1) variable at a time:
1. Measure of Central Tendency (mean, median, mode)
2. Measure of variability/dispersion (range, IQR, Standard
Deviation, Quartile Deviation, Average Deviation,
Coefficient of Variation)
 Descriptive Statistics - two (2) variables at a time:
1. Measures of Correlation
a. Pearson – for 2 sets of interval data
b. Spearman rho – ordinal – ordinal (easier to compute)
c. Kendall Tau – ordinal – ordinal (reliable for large n)
d. Kendall Partial Correlation Coefficient – 3 sets of
ordinal data
e. Point Biserial – nominal – interval data
2. Measures of Association (Q coefficient, phi
coefficient)
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34. Commonly Used Statistical Analyses
 Inferential Statistics - Used in hypothesis testing
1. Parametric (t-test)
2. Non – Parametric (Mc Nemar, Chi-
square, Wilcoxon, Mann Whitney)
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – comparing
more than 2 groups
 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) – for
equating groups
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35. Final Part and Important Considerations
 Results and Findings
 Summary, Conclusions & Recommendations
 Important Considerations
1. Clear and concise title
2. Clearly stated and delimited problem
3. Clearly stated significance of the problem, scope and limitation
of the study
4. Testable hypothesis
5. Coherent and relevant review of theories, literature and studies
6. Detailed description of research design
7. Adequate samples
8. Relevant variables
9. Appropriate data gathering technique
10. Valid and reliable instruments
11. Clearly stated results and discussion
12. Properly formatted bibliographical entries
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36. Designing Research Instruments
A. Observation Checklist Guidelines
1. Enumerate (list down) the dimensions (factors) to be observed
2. Define them very clearly. (What they are exactly)
3. Eliminate those that are vague or repetitive.
4. Arrange them on a sheet of paper in a manner most convenient
for observing and recording.
5. Include space for identifying data.
6. Try out form. (This is called a dry run)
7. Revise the form on the basis of the try out and your experience.
8. Write the checklist in its final form.
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37. B. Guidelines in the Formulation of questions
for a Questionnaire
1. Make all directions clear and unequivocal
2. Use correct grammar
3. Make all questions unequivocal
4. Avoid asking biases questions
5. Objective responses
6. Relate all questions to the topic under study
7. Create categories or classes for approximate
8. Group the questions in logical
9. Create sufficient number of response categories
10. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with confidential or
embarrassing information
11. Explain and illustrate difficult questions
12. State all questions affirmatively
13. Makes as many questions as would supply adequate information
for the study
14. Add a catch-all word or phrase to options of multiple response questions
15. Place all spaces for relies at the left side
16. Make the respondents anonymous
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38. Sample of Bibliographical Entries
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS
Alano, Patricio, Management of Human Behavior in
Organizations, Manila, National Bookstore, 1992.
Baldwin, R. G., Incentives for Faculty Vitality, San
Francisco Publishing House: London, 1985
B.JOURNAL AND PERIODICALS
Putman, J.J. “Quicksilver and Slow Death” National
Geographic, 1972.
Waldichuck, M. “Lead in the Environment” Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 1980
C. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Alcala, D., “Personality Dimensions and Status of
Elementary School Principals as Related to their level
Of Job Satisfaction in the Division of Quezon”.
(Unpublished Masteral Thesis, PNC, 1988.)
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