Syntax III

Syntax III
Jack & Ivy

2012.9.25

5.1 English Verbs
• 5.1.1 Verb forms
• 5.1.2 The syntactic environment
• 5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence: the
perfect construction
• 5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
• 5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
• 5.1.6 Structure of tensed clauses
• 5.1.7The position of main verbs and auxiliaries
in the clausal structure
• 5.1.8 Summary of verbs distribution

Verbs function as the head of Verb Phrases
(P.258)

VP VP VP

V V DP V PP
DP

laugh kiss Juliet give P DP
flowers

to Juliet

5.1 English Verbs
5.1.1 Verb Forms

Non-finite verb forms

Infinitive to use to show

Participles: past participle used shown
passive participle used shown
present participle using showing

Finite verb forms
Past tense used showed

Present tense uses shows

• Verbs inflected for past or present tense
and agreement are often referred to as
finite verbs.

• The other verb forms as non-finite verbs.

5.1.2 The syntactic environment
The perfect auxiliary have co-occurs with a
past participle.

a. Many students have liked Romeo and Juliet.

The passive auxiliary be co-occurs with a
passive participle.

a. Juliet was loved by Romeo.

5.1.2 The syntactic environment

• Progressive be co-occurs with a present
participle.

a. Many students are reading Romeo and Juliet.

Infinitives
As the complement of a modal

a. Many students could read Romeo and Juliet.

As the complement of a causative verb or a
verb of perception.

a. They let Romeo and Juliet die.
b. They saw Juliet kiss Romeo.

Infinitives
In different types of infinitival complements

to-infinitivals

a. Many student try to read Romeo and Juliet.

for-to infinitivals

a. Many professors want very much for their
students to read Romeo and Juliet.

Tensed clauses require tensed verbs
inflected for past or present tense.

main clause

a. Romeo loved Juliet.
b.*Romeo loving/to love Juliet.

embedded clause

a. I believe that Romeo loved Juliet.
b. I don‟t know if Romeo loved Juliet.

Generalizations

• Particular verbal forms co-occur with
particular auxiliaries.

• Particular verbal forms co-occur with
particular types of clauses.

5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence :
the perfect construction
R1 (first version)

A sentence containing the perfect
auxiliary have must contain a past
participle.

Check
a. *Many students seen have Juliet.
b. *Seen many students have Juliet.
c. *Many students have see Juliet died .
+V +pp

The past
participles must
stay close to
auxiliaries‟ right
side.


VP1

have VP2

V [+past participle] DP

read Hamlet

R2 (second version)

Have requires or demands a complement
which contains a past participle.


Bad case Good case

have VP VP
= complement of have have = complement of have

V VP
V +past part
V
+past
part

Too Far


This part of the
structure must
contain the past
VP
participle

VP
In other
words, it
needs a
immediate
complement
.


R3 (third version)

Have requires or demands a past
participle in its “immediate” complement.

5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
VP PP AP

V P A

Heads determine the category of their
projection in syntax.


• Heads in morphology
– Suffixes c-select the morpheme that they
attach to.

-ize c-selcets N change N to V symbol-ize

-ment c-selcets V change V to N establish-ment

The category of the newly formed word is determined
by the right most suffix


V N A

N V A N N A

baby sit green house nation wide

• Compound have heads
• In English, compounds are head-final.


have VP [+past part]

V
[v see +past part]

Since the past participle is the head of
the VP complement, the VP projection is
marked +past participle.


R4 (final)

Have requires or demands (=selects) a
past participle complement.

Building Larger Structures

a. (Passive) be requires a [+passive participle] complement.

b. (Progressive) be requires a [+present participle] complement.

Example:
This play should have been being read by the students.
(perfect have, progressive be, passive be, main V)

VP

V VP + past part

have
V [+en] VP + present part

been V [+ing] VP + passive part

being V [+ed] DP

read [e] this play

5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
For Kate to defy Petruccio takes courage.

This
The for DP to VP string
acts as
constituent is
a single constituent. called
infinitive CP


to VP

To is a realization To always combines
of the category with an infinitival VP
T (tense) to its right.

• Conclude that TP contains two layers of
structure:

a. one layer in which the head combines
with a complement to its right, forming a
constituent T‟.

b. a higher layer where T‟ combines with a
specifier forming TP


CP

For TP

DP T‟

to VP

Accusative subject pronouns can only
appear if for is present.

a. For her (*she) to be loved.


• heads demand certain types of
complements.

• the complement is the sister of the head.

Tensed clauses
A tensed clause demands a finite verb.
- main clause
a. Katherina defied (*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.

-embedded clause
a. Many students concluded that katherina defied
(*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.

Tensed clauses
CP
What does
this reveal
that VP [+T] about the
mental
grammar?

Katherina defied Petruccio

Main clauses require tensed verbs
CP The C node
happens to be silent
C + decl, +main VP [+T]
in main tensed
clause
DP
A silent
head exists
Katherina
V+T DP in English

defied Petruccio

C [+decl, +main], c-selects +Tense, C
is not pronounced.

C[+decl, +embedded], c-selects
+Tense, C is pronounced as that.

Languages with an overt complementizer in
all declarative clauses
Korean (nom= nominative, dec= declarative)

romio-ka culiet-kwa kicaŋ-e ka-ss-ta
Romeo-nom Juliet-with theater-to go-past-decl (matrix)
„Romeo went with Juliet to the theater.‟

The building blocks of syntax are heads
which can be either silent or overt.

Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses
CP CP

[cthat] VP[+T
[cfor] TP ]
DP V‟
DP

Katherina V+T DP
[+to] VP
Katherina

V DP defies P
defy P

Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses

a. Infinitive to is a free standing morpheme
in T.
b. Finite tense is expressed as a suffix on
the verb.
c. The subject in the infinitival is located in
a different structural position than the
subject of a tensed clause.

Enriching the structure of tensed complements

CP CP

that TP[+T
for TP[+T] ]
T‟ DP T‟
DP
VP[+T]
[Tto] Katherina R+Tense
VP[+inf]
Katherina

V DP V+T DP
defy P defies P

5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses

Auxiliaries:
a. Juliet has gone to the nunnery.
b. Juliet is sad.

Modals
a. Juliet will go to the garden.

Main verbs
a. Juliet wrote to Romeo.

5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses

Auxiliaries and modals can precede the subject in
yes-no questions.

a. Is she going to the garden?
b. Should she go the garden?
c. Has she gone to the garden?

VP ellipsis
Although Regan has not been a good
daughter to Lear, Cordelia has.
(been a good daughter to Lear)

This process that allows the
VP to be silent
is referred as VP ellipsis

VP ellipsis
Although Regan has not been a good
daughter to Lear, Cordelia has.
(been a good daughter to Lear)

The pronounce part is
referred as the remnant
of VP ellipsis

VP ellipsis
TP [+tense] It needs
support
!!
DP T‟
VP
ellipsis
[+T-ed] VP

V DP
This is
incorrect defy P

Do-support
TP [+tense]

DP T‟
VP
ellipsis
[ do+ [t-ed] ] VP

Insert do to DP
V
support (=save)
a stranded suffix defy P
in T.

Affix-hoping
Input Affix-hoping Output

T VP T VP
-ed
V V
defy

defy +ed

Head movement

T VP
-ed

V
defy

VP ellipsis for VP2

• [TPEmilia [[T-s] [VP1 be [VP2 listening to Iago]] too]]

It is
impossible to VP ellipsis of VP2
ellipsis of
VP1

a. Finite forms of HAVE and BE are in tensed T.

b. Finite forms of MAIN VERBS are in VP.

5.1.7 The position of main verbs and
auxiliaries in the clausal structure

• Not
– not/n’t
– finite forms of the auxiliaries have, be, and do
must precede not (and n’t)
– non-finite forms of the auxiliaries follow not

5.1.7 The position of main verbs and
auxiliaries in the clausal structure

Non-finite form
auxiliary (have)
follow not

He won’t have climbed the mountain yet

The Finite
auxiliary (will)
precedes not

Distribution of adverbials
• certain adverbials intervene between T and
the main V in English:

a. Olivia will probably leave tomorrow.
T Adv V(inf)
b. You must recently have read Macbeth.
T Adv V (pp)

Distribution of adverbials
• When the main verb is inflected, these
adverbs precede the main verb:

a. Olivia probably left yesterday.
Adv V+T
b. You recently read Macbeth.
Adv V+T

Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion

matrix yes-no questions start with either a
modal, or a finite auxiliary (have, be or do)

a. Has Othello died?
b. Is Othello dying?
c. Did Othello die?


embedded yes-no questions start with a
particular C (complementizer), either if or
whether:

(89)
a. I wonder if Othello died quickly.
b. I wonder whether Othello died quickly.


• Subject-Aux-Inversion:
– Subject-Aux-Inversion must apply in matrix yes-
no questions.

– Subject-Aux-Inversion cannot apply when there
is an overt complementizer present in the C
node.


a. *I wonder if did Othello die quickly.
No Need !!!

Incorrect !!
C selects values
of T


• The lexical complementizer if/whether and
the inverted T are in complementary
distribution

The C level: properties of individual
complementizers
a. Othello thought THAT Desdemona lied.
C –Q
b. Othello wondered IF Desdemona can be
It
lied.
silent

C+Q
It is overt

Why main Vs fail to move to +Q

a. Main verbs cannot appear in T[+T].
b. Main verbs cannot appear in C[+Q].

•main V to T is a prerequisite for further
movement to C

5.1.8 Summary of distribution of
English verbs
• the distribution of verbs
• C is a zero morpheme in main clause
declaratives and questions.
• C is that in embedded declaratives.
• C is whether or if in embedded yes-no
questions.

5.2 Cross-Linguistic Variation:
Beyond English

• 5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation
• 5.2.2 Language variation and parameters
• 5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages
• 5.2.4 Other languages
• 5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in
word order: VP ellipsis
• 5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun
system: DP

5.2.1 The nature of linguistic
variation
• Heads ( = morphemes)
– the building blocks of syntactic structures
– pronounced (overt material)
silent

– lexical categories (N, V, A, P)

functional categories (T, C, Q, …)

• Structure
– local head-complement relations
– Spec-head relations

• Movement
– co-courrence restrictions between positions

(102)

Whati hasT Juliet [Te]T [ve]t said [DPe]i

- the VP level
- the T level
- the CP level

• head-initial languages
– ordering the head before the complement
– VSO / SVO

• head-final languages
– ordering the head after the complement
– SOV

• parameters
– options available to the language learners

• Movement

• Japanese: wh-in-situ
• English: wh to Spec, CP

• wh-in-situ
wh-phrases occur in the same positions where
DPs appear

• Chinese have in situ wh-elements
• "John bought what?"
"John bought bread"
• with what in the same position in the
sentence as the grammatical object would
be in its affirmative counterpart

5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages

English (E) and French (F)
• the ordering of pre-VP adverbials and finite
verbs
(109)
a. Romeo carefully words his letters
b. *Roméo soigneusement formule ses lettres

(110)
a.*Romeo words carefully his letters
b.Roméo formule soigneusement ses lettres

• E: Adv-finite main V
• F: Finite main V- Adv

(111)
• English: Finite main V in VP

[TPDP[Te] Adv [VP [V T] ]
• French: Finite main V in tensed T

[TPNP[T V T] Adv [VP[ve] ]

When the sentence contains a finite
auxiliary, they show the same order:
(112)

a. Romeo has carefully worded his
letters.
b. Roméo a soigneusement formulé ses
lettres.

English: Finite-AUX-Adv-Participle
French: Finite-AUX-Adv-Participle

(113)
• a. Romeo is often sick.
• b. Jean est souvent malade.

(114)
• a. In French, finite auxiliaries and main vs
are in [+T]
• b. (i) In English, finite auxiliaries are in [+T]
(ii) In English, finite main verbs are in [+T]

• verb in different positions:
• ( [ve] indicates the original position of V)

(115) [T vsisite] [ve] ses voisins]

• a. Roméo [Te] [visits his neighbors]
• b. Romeo

negative sentences

• (116)
• c. Roméo ne visite pas[ve] ses voisins]
[

• the V raises to T over negation pas

• the differences in word-order patterns
result from the position finite verbs occupy;
they are in +T in French, but in T in
English.

• (117) The position a particular head
occupies is one source of language
variation.

English and Germanic
languages
(118)
matrix: [ [ CVf] [DP …
embedded: [ [ CC [DP Vf

• In matrix clauses, all finite verbs would
raise to the C position.
• Embedded clauses always have an overt
C, with the finite verb remaining in T.

Dutch

– verb-second:
the finite verb always follows a constituent in
first position (the finite verb therefore is in
second position in this clause type)

– (119)
a. Morgen goat Juliet met Romeo naar de film
Tomorrow goes Juliet with Romeo to the movies

Dutch
– XP first in matrix clauses:
the initial position of certain types of root
clauses in Dutch (say, Spec, CP) must always
be filled with some constituent (otherwise the
verb would be first!)

– XP first in matrix clauses:
Spec, CP (Matrix) must contain an overt
constituent

5.2.4 Other languages

• language variation is due to variation in
movement

– Vata
in Vata, V movement is quite
transparent, because it results in word-order
differences.

5.2.5 Languages with no visible
change in word order: VP ellipsis
• the strict head-final nature of the
projections in strictly head-final
languages, like Japanese or Korean for
example, no material can intervene
between C, T, and V positions

Irish
• Irish shows VSO order in both matrix and
embedded tensed sentences

Dúirt sé go dtiocfadh sé
say(past) he C come(condit) he
„He said that he would come‟

Irish
• VSO order is a characteristic property of finite clauses: non-
finite clauses show either SVO order(125) or even SOV
order(126)

• (125) SVO order

Bhreathnaigh mé uirthi agus í ag imeacht uaim
looked I on-her and her leave(prog) from-me
„I watched her as she was leaving me.

• (126) SOV order

Níor mhaith liom iad a chéile a phósadh
I-would-not-like them each-other marry(inf)
„I would not like them to marry each other.‟

Irish
• This suggests that the word order in tenses
clauses is derived, with the verb in finite
clauses moving out of the VP, to some
position higher than the subject. As a result
of this movement, the subject intervenes
between the finite verb and its object.
• The finite verb cannot be in C, since it co-
occurs with the finite complementizer: VSO
order is a property of all tensed clauses, main
or embedded. Therefore it is in T.

Irish
• (127) The finite verb in Irish is in T.

Irish
• Support for V being outside VP comes from the
process of VP ellipsis in Irish. Irish has no words for
yes, or no.
• (128)
Question:
Ar chuir tú isteach air?
InterC put[PAST] you in on-it
„Did you apply for it?‟

Answer:
Chuir Níor chuir
put[PAST] NEG put[PAST]
„Yes‟ ‟No‟

Irish
• The part that disappeared is understood in
the answer. Elliptical sentences occur in
roughly the same range of contexts as
English VP ellipsis:

• (129)
Dúirt mé go gceannóinn é agus cheannaigh
said I C buy [Condit:S1] it and bought
„I said that I would buy it and I did.‟

• (130)
A: Chennaigh siad teach
buy[PAST] they house
„They bought a house.‟

B: Níor cheannaigh
NEG[PAST] bought
„They did not.‟

• Tag questions
• (131)
Chennaigh siad teach, nár
cheannaigh
bought they house NEG INTERR C
buy[PAST]
„They bought a house, didn‟t they?‟

• Thus, this looks like VP ellipsis, except for
the fact that the remnant contains the finite
main V! This situation can arise if the V is
outside of the constituent on which silence
is imposed.
• Since the V is not within the VP, but in T, it
must be pronounced.
• The subjects in Irish must be silent as well.

English VS. Irish
English: they did!

CP

C TP

DP
They VP
T
(do) -ed
V DP
buy the house

English VS. Irish
Irish : bought
CP

C TP

DP
T VP
buyi -ed
DP
they
V DP
[e]i the house

• VP ellipsis thus provides an excellent
argument for V to T movement in Irish!

DP occurs in different position
TP English subjects

DP

T VP Irish subjects

DP

5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun
system: DP
• Just like clauses, DPs come in different
kinds as well:
– as definite (or specific) DPs (the men, these
women)
– quantified DPs (two men, every man)
– generic DPs (people)

• We can consider D as being the head of an
NP

• (140)
a. the frequent visits to his parents
(E)
b. les visites fréquentes á ses parents
(F)

The N moves to Num in French, but not in English

DP
French Nouns

D NumP

NP English Nouns
Num
visites
AP NP
frequent visits

The Hebrew nouns move to D

DP Hebrew Nouns

D NumP French Nouns
beyt
NP English Nouns
Num
visites
AP NP
frequent visits

• the syntactic input consists of words, silent
morphemes, and some inflectional
morphemes

• the head-complement relation regulates
the distribution of verbal forms, and forms
the basic backbone of a clause.

• the property that distinguishes declarative
clauses, questions, etc, is located at the C
level

• TPs fall into different types depending on
properties of the T head (-T=to, +T=tense)

• in English, tensed main verbs occur in
VP, tensed auxiliaries and modals in
+T, or, in certain contexts, in C

• languages have quite similar
structures, with differences arising from
ordering parameters, and lexical
parameters

Syntax III

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Syntax III