This presentation prepared by Mr. KVS Kartha on behalf of Parishath Padanakendram Kottarakkara for Science Classes Campaign in connection with the International Year of Chemistry. You can use and share this presentation as per the terms of CC BY.

1. ck-X{´hÀjw 2011
tIcf imkv{X-km-lnXy ]cn-j¯v

4. IrjnbnS-§-fnse
ck-X-{´w
Ah-X-cWw X¿m-dm-¡n-bXv
]T--tI-{µw, sIm«m-c-¡-c.

5. taÂa®pw ASn-a®pw
• taÂa-®v- þ- D-]-cn-X-e-¯n n¶pw 25
sk.-ao. hsc XmgvN-bn-ep-ÅXpw Xmc-X-
tay Idp¸p ndhpw Cf-¡-hp-apÅ
a®v
• Dg-hp-]m-fn þ Inf-¡p-t¼mgpw Dghv S-
¯p-t¼mgpw Cf-¡p¶ apI-fn-es¯ 12-
þ18 sk.-ao. a®v.

6. a®p-−m-Ip-¶Xv
• shbnÂ, ag, Imäv XpS-§nb {]IrXniàn-I-
fpsS {]hÀ¯--¯m ]md kmh-[mw
s]mSnªv a®p−mIp¶p.
• CXn-sm¸w kky P´p Ah-in-jvS-§Ä,
kq£vam-Wp-¡Ä, Pew, hmbp F¶nh Ie-
cp-¶p.

7. a®nse ssPhmwiw
hnim-e-amb AÀ°¯nÂ
kky-P-´p-Pm-e-§-fpsS
Agp-Im¯ Awi-§Ä,
¶mbn AgpIn cq]m-´cw kw`-hn¨
t¢Zw (lyq-a-kv),
a®nse Øqekq£va Pohn-IÄ
Ch-sbÃmw ssPhmw-i-amWv.

8. a®nsâ ^e-]pjvSn
• hf-¡q-dp-Å-Xp-sIm-−p-am{Xw ^e-]pjvSn
D−m-I-W-sa-¶n-Ã.
• a®nsâ cmk,- `u-XnIKpW-§Ä Ap-tbm-
Py-am-I-Ww.
• a®nsâ cN-, LS-, kpjn-c-Ø-ew, KmV-
X, Pe kw{K-l-W-ti-jn, ndw, ssPhmw-
iw, A¾-X, eh-Wmw-iw, [m-b-W-hn-n-a-b-
£-aX XpS§n Ht«sd khn-tij LS-I-§-
fpsS BsI-Xp-I-bmWv ^e-]p-jvSn.

9. ^e-]pjvSnbpÅ a®v
5%
25%
Pew
hmbp
[mXp
45% ssPhmwiw
25%

10. a®nse sImtfm-bvUp-IÄ
• Hcp ssat{Im-ao-ä-dn Ipd-hphep-¸apÅ Xcn-
IfpÅ Ifn-a®pw t¢Z-hp-w a®nse
sImtfmbvUv kz`m-h-apÅhbmWv.
• Ch¡v (þ) sshZypX NmÀPp−v. AXn-m ]c-
kv]cw hnIÀjn-¡pw. NmÀPp-Å hkvXp¡Ä
tNÀ¯m sImtfmbvUv kz`m-hanÃm-Xm-Ipw.
• ]m Hcp sImtfmbvUv. ]pfntbm Dt¸m
tNÀ¯m ]ncn-bpw.

11. hnfI-fpsS Blmcw
• hnf-IÄ¡v t]mj-I-aq-ey-§Ä Atbm-Wp-I-
fmtb kzoI-cn-¡m-m-Iq. IqSp-Xepw [-A-tbm-
Wp-I-fm-bmWv kzoI-cn-¡-s¸-Sp-I.
• sImtfm-bvUp-IÄ¡v EW NmÀPmWv F¶-Xn-
m [ NmÀPpÅ Atbm-Wp-IÄ sImtfm-
bvUp-Ifn ]än-¸n-Sn-¡pw.
• Hcp {Kmw Ifn-a-®nsâ BsI {]X-e-hn-
kvXoÀ®w Hcp {Kmw aW-ensâ 1000 Cc-«n.
AXn-m IqSp-X [-A-tbm-Wp-IÄ ]än-¸n-
Sn-¡pw.

12. A¾ a®nÂ
• A¾-a-®n ssl{U-P³ Atbm-Wp-IÄ
IpSp-X-ep-−m-Ipw.
• Ip½mbw tNÀ¡p-t¼mÄ [mcm-f-ambn
ImÕyw a®n-te¡v F¯p-w. a¬X-cn-I-fnÂ
]än-¸n-Sn-¨n-cn-¡p¶ ssl{U-Ps XÅn-amän
ImÕyw Ømw ]nSn¡pw. a®nv £mc-Kp-
W-ambn amdpw.

13. Ca
H
Ca
H
H
Ca

14. [m-bWhnn-abw
• Cu a®n-te¡v s]m«mkyw C«mÂ,
s]m«mkyw ImÕys¯ XÅn-am-äp-Ibpw
sNSn¡v e`y-am-¡p-Ibpw sN¿pw.
• C¯-c-¯n [-A-tbm-Wp-IÄ ]c-
kv]cw Ømw amdp-¶-XmWv
[mbWhn-n-abw.
• a®nsâ [m-b-W-hn-n-a-b-tijn IqSp-
t´mdpw ^e-]p-jvSnbpw IpSpw.

15. K
Ca
H K
Ca
H
H K
Ca

16. sImtfm-bvUnsâ KpW-§Ä
• hf-¯nse aqe-I-A-tbm-Wp-IÄ Ifn-a-®n-
tâbpw t¢Z-¯n-tâbpw Xcn-Ifn ]än-¸n-Sn-
¡p-¶-Xn-m shÅ-¯n-eqsS Hen¨v t]mIp-
¶n-Ã.
• s]m«m-kyw, Atam-Wnbw Atbm-Wp-IÄ¡v
a®n-eq-sS-bpÅ k©m-cX (Mobility) IqSp-X-
em-Wv.
• Ifn-a-®n-tebpw t¢Z-¯n-tebpw Xcn-I-fnse
EW-NmÀPv Chsb ]nSn¨p h¡p-¶-Xn-mÂ
a®n-eq-sS-bpÅ k©mchpw Ipd-bp¶p.

17. sImtfm-bvUnsâ KpW-§Ä
• aen Pe-¯nse hnj-ab teml Atbm-
Wp-I-fmb ImUvanbw, Cubw, n¡Â
F¶n-hsb sImtfm-bvUp-IÄ ]nSn¨p h¡p-
¶-Xn-m D]-cn-Xe/`qKÀ`-P-e-¯nsâ aen-
o-I-cWw Hcp ]cn-[n-hsc XS-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
• a®nse ]n.-F¨v hyXym-k-§Ä AXn-Po-hn-
¡m-pÅ Ign-hmWv D`b {]Xn-tcm-[-w.-
CXv [-m-b-W-hn-n-abtijn IqSp-¶-X-p-k-
cn¨v IqSpw.

18. Ifn-a-®pw t¢Zhpw
a®nÂ
Ifn-a-®ntâbpw t¢Z-¯n-tâbpw
km¶n²yw
F{X-t¯mfw An-hm-cy-am-sW¶v
t_m²y-am-bn-tÃ.

19. sN¦Â a®nÂ
• sN¦Â a®n Ccp-¼v, Aeq-an-obw ssl{Ukv
HmIvssk-Up-IÄ [mcm-f-ambn D−v. Ch cmk-kw-
tbm-Pw hgn t^mkv^-d-kns _Ôn-¸n¨v
nÀ¯n sNSn-IÄ¡v e`y-a-Ãm-Xm¡pw.
• Ip½mbw tNÀ¯m ]n.-F-¨v. aqeyw Db-cpw. OH -
Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w hÀ²n¡pw. OH -
t^mkv^-d-kv kwbp-à-§-fpambn tNÀ¶v Aeq-an-
obw ssl{Ukv HmIvssk-Up-IÄ ho−pw
D−m-¡pw. ]Icw t^mkv^-d-kns a®n-te¡v
Ab-¡pw. AXv sNSnIÄ¡v e`y-am-Ipw.

20. EWm-b-W-hn-n-abw
• Ip½mbw CSp-t¼mÄ sN¦Âa-®n S-
¡p¶ Cu {]{Inb EWm-b-W-hn-n-a-b-am-
Wv.
• EWm-b-W-hn-n-a-b-abhpw sNSn-IÄ¡v
t]mjWw In«p-¶-Xnv klm-bn-¡p-¶p-−v.
• Ip½mbw CSp-¶Xv [m-b-W-hn-n-a-b-
ab¯npw EWm-b-W-hn-n-a-b-ab¯npw
klm-b-I-am-hp¶p F¶p ½Ä I−p.

21. Ip½mbw tNÀ¡Â
• tIc-f-¯nse `qcn-`mKw a®p-Ifpw A¾o-b-
amWv. Cu a®n ImÕy-¯nsâ A`m-h-
ap-−mIpw F¶-Xn-m Ip½mbw
tNÀ¡Â Bh-iy-ambn hcp-¶p.
• [m-b-W-, EWm-b-W hn-n-a-b-
ab§Ä¡pw Ip½mbw tNÀ¡Â {][m--
am-Wv.

22. ssPhmw-i-¯nsâ KpWw
• a®nsâ cN tami-am-b-Xp-sIm-−pÅ
Zqjy-§Ä ]cn-l-cn-¡p-¶p.
• ssPh-h-kvXp-¡-fnse t]mfn-km-¡-ssd-Up-
IÄ BWv a¬I-Wn-I-Isf Dd-¸n-¨p-
nÀ¯p¶ “knaâv.” a®nsâ LS Ch-
bn-sÃ-¦n s]«¶v XIÀ¶v t]mIpw.
• a®n n¶pÅ Pe-_m-jv]o-I-cWw Ipd-
¡p-¶p.

23. ssPhmw-i-¯nsâ KpWw
• aWÂ IqSnb a®nsâ Pe-kw-{K-l-W-
tijn Iq«p-¶p.
• Ifn-a-®m-sW-¦n hmbp, Pew F¶n-h-
bpsS a®n-eq-sS-bpÅ k©mcw Ffp-¸-am-
¡p-¶p.
• D]-cn-X-e-¯n Hcp ]pX¸p t]mse
{]hÀ¯n¨v as®m-en¸v Ipd-¡p-¶p.

24. ssPhmw-i-¯nsâ KpWw
• ssPhmwiw tNcp-t¼m-gpÅ Xhnt«m
Idpt¸m ndw a®nsâ Dujvam-hns
kzm[o-n¡pw.
• ssPhmwiw IqSp-X-epÅ a®n Pemw-
ihpw IqSn-bn-cn-¡pw. AXn-m A[nIw
NqSv hen-s¨-Sp-¡n-Ã.
• NqSp-Im-e¯v XWp¸pw inin-c-¯n NqSpw
]IÀ¶v a®nse PohnXw kpJ-I-c-am-¡pw.

25. ssPhmw-ihpw
t]mj-I-e-`y-Xbpw
• cmk-h-f-an-ÃmsX Irjn-sN¿pt¼mÄ
ss{SPsâ 90-þ95 % hpw ssPhmw-i¯nÂ
n¶v.
• ssPhmwiw 2% epw IqSp-X-epÅ a®nÂ
t^m-kv^-dkntâbpw kÄ^dn-tâbpw
{][m t{kmXÊv ssPhmwiw Xs¶.
• DjvW-ta-Jema®nepw sN¦Âa-®nepw
kq£vaaq-e-I-§Ä Ipd-hv. Nmc¯n 5%
kq£vaaq-e-I-§Ä BWv.

26. ssPhmw-ihpw
teml-aq-e-I§fpw
• Ccp-¼v, Aeqano-bw, sN¼v, kn¦v, amwK-
okv XpS-§nb teml-aq-e-I-§Ä sNSn-
IÄ¡v hen-s¨-Sp-¡-¯-¡-hn[w teb-cq-]-
¯nembncn-¡n-Ã.
• ssPhmw-ihpw teml-A-tbm-Wp-Ifpw _Ô-
§Ä hgn dnwKv BIrXnbnepÅ X·m-{X-
Ifmbn amdpw. Cu _Ôw kq£va-aq-e-I-
§sf sNSn-IÄ¡v In«p¶ Xc-¯n-em-¡pw.

27. hnäm-anpw aäpw
• ssPh-hkvXp¡-fpsS hnL-S-w- hgn -hn¯p-
ap-f-¡Â, thcv hfÀ¨, hnfhv F¶n-hsb
kzm[o-n-¡p¶ hn-äm-an-p-IÄ, Bâo_-
tbm«n¡pIÄ, kkytlmÀtam-Wp-IÄ
F¶nh a®n-te-¡v.
• Bâo_-tbm«n¡pIÄ tcmKm-Wp-¡-fpsS
kwJy Ipd-¡pw.
• a®nsâ ^e-]pjvSn ne-nÀ¯p¶
kq£vaPohnI-fpsS t{kmXÊv ssPhmwiw.

28. ssPhmwi kwc-£Ww
• ssPhmwiw ne-nÀ¯m³ a®n ss{S-P³
D−m-I-Ww-þ- ss{S-Pv ]-bÀhÀ¤-§Ä, ss{S-
P³ cmk-h-f-§Ä, ssPh-h-kvXp-¡Ä.
• Bh-c-W-hn-f-Ifpw ]¨ne-hn-f-Ifpwþh-«, D§v,
ioas¡m¶, kp_m-_pÄ-þ-sU-bn-©, Inep¡n,
NW-¼v, sImgnªnÂ.
• slIvS-dnv 5þ6 S¬ ssPh-h-fw.
• as®m-en¸v XS-b-Ww. hmbp k©mcw Iq«mpw
If-Isf HXp-¡mpw am{Xw Dghpw Inf-¡epw

29. t]mjI aqe-I-§Ä
• {]Ir-Xn-bn 92þ kky-tIm-i-§-fn 60þ
hfÀ¨¡v 17.
• ImÀ_¬, ssl{U-P³, HmIvkn-P³, ss{S-
P³,- t^m-kv^-d-kv, s]m«m-kyw, ImÕyw,
aáojyw, KÔ-Iw, amwK-o-kv, Ccp-¼v, sN¼v,
mIw, tamfn-_vUn-w, t_mtdm¬, t¢mdn³,
n¡Â.
• IqSmsX acp-`q-an-bnse Nne sNSn-IÄ¡v
tkmUn-bw, ss{S-P³ kw`-cn-¡p¶ _mIvSo-cn-
b-IÄ¡v tIm_mÄ«v, sÃnpw Icn-¼npw
knen-¡¬

30. Ah-iy-aq-e-I-§Ä
• 17 Â 3 þ D-W-§nb kky`mK¯nsâ 94 % hpw
ImÀ_¬, ssl{U-P³, HmIvkn-P³þhm-bp-hnÂ
n¶pw Pe-¯n n¶pw e`y-am-Ipw.
• _m¡n 14 v a®v Xs¶ B{ibw
• {]mY-anI t]mjIaqe-I-§Ä/ hfaqe-I-§Äþ
ss{S-P³,- t^m-kv^-d-kv, s]m«m-kywþIq-Snb
Af-hn thWw.
• ZznXob t]mjIaqe-I-§Äþ ImÕyw, aáojyw,
KÔ-Iw.
• kq£va aqe-I-§Ä-þ-_m¡n 11 F®w.

31. e`yX
• {]mY-anI t]mjIaqe-I-§Ä hf-ambn
ÂI-Ww.
• ZznXob t]mjIaqe-I-§fpw kq£vaaqe-
I-§fpwþ-h-f-ambn ÂtI−n hcm-dn-Ã.
• ]s£ as®m-en-¸pw ssPh-h-f-{]-tbm-
K¯nsâ Ipdhpw kq£va-a-q-eI
ZuÀe`yw krjvSn-¡mw.

32. hf-{]-tbmKw
• t]mj-I-aq-e-I-§Ä a®n-eq-sStbm
tcnt«m ÂIp-I.
• aq¶v Xcw
1. ssPh-hfw
2. cmkhfw
3. Pohm-Wp-hfw

33. ssPh-hfw
• It¼m-ÌvþN¸p-N-h-dp-IÄ, Ce-IÄ, Agp-In-t¨-
cp¶ ssPhm-h-in-jvS-§Ä, NIn-cn-t¨mdv +
NmW-Iw, tKmaq{Xw
• ssPhm-h-in-jvS-§Ä ¶mbn hnL-Sn¨v
sNSn¡v Ffp¸w hen-s¨-Sp-¡m-hp¶ AhØ
• ImÀ_¬-þ-ss-{S-P³ Ap-]mXw 10 : 1
BIWw
• ss{S-P³ t{kmX-Êp-IÄþNmW-Iw, io-a-s¡m-
¶, ]b-dp-hÀ¤-]-¨n-e-IÄ, tImgn-¡m-jvTw,
Noª-aÕyw.

34. ØqessPh-hf§Ä
• -arKhf§Ä, sXmgp-¯p-h-fw, tImgn-¡m-
jvTw, kkym-h-in-jvS-§Ä, Nmcw XpS-§n-
bh
• Ch-bn k-ky-aq-e-I-§Ä Ipd-hv- þ -AXn-
m h-fsc IqSnb Afhv thWw
• -hne IqSp-XÂ – -F-¯n-¡m-pÅ _p²n-ap-«v-
þ- e-`y-X-¡p-dhv

35. km{µo-Ir-X- ssP-h-h-f-§Ä
• e£yw t]mj-I-§Ä ÂIpI
• th¸n³ ]n®m-¡v, Bh-W-¡n³ ]n®m-¡v-
þ-h-fhpw ssPhIoS-m-in-nbpw.
• FÃp-s]m-Sn-þ20-þ25 % t^mkv^-dkvþA-¾-X-
Iq-Snb a®nv Ap-tbm-Pyw.
• aÕy-h-fw-þ4% ss{S-P³, 3.9% t^mkv^-
dkv
• cà-h-fw-þ10-þ12% ss{S-P³

36. cmk-h-fw-þ-D-]-tbm-K-coXn
• Hmtcm hnfbv¡pw GXp aqeIw GXv ka-
b¯v F{X Af-hn F¶v a-Ên-em-¡-
Ww.
• hnf-I-fpsS Cw, Ahbv¡v Bh-iy-amb
t]mj-I-aq-e-I-§-fpsS tXmXv, a®nsâ
LS-, kz`mhw F¶n-hsb ASn-Øm--
am¡n hf-{]-tbm-Kw.

37. cmk-h-f-§Ä
• tÀh-f-§Ä-þ-Hcp {]mYanI kky-aq-eIw
am{Xw-þ-bq-dnb (ss-{S-P³), kq¸À
t^mkvt^-äv (-t^m-kv^-d-kv)
• kwbp-à-h-f-§Ä-þ-H-¶n IqSp-XÂ
{]mYanI -aq-eI§Ä tNÀ¯v nÀ½n-¨-Xv-þ-
^m-IvSw-t^mkv (20% ss{S-P³ 20%
t^mkv^-d-kv)
• Iq«p-h-f-§Äþ-H-¶n IqSp-X tÀh-f-
§Ä- Irjn-bn-S-¯nÂh¨v Iq«n-t¨À¯-Xv-
þ10:5:20 Iq«phfw

38. hfw tNÀ¡p¶ coXn
• ASnhfambpw taÂh-f-ambpw þ hnX-dn-sIm-
Sp-¡p¶ coXn km[m-cWw þ jvSw Hgn-hm-
¡m³ thcp-]-Sew DÅn-S-t¯¡v tcn«v
C«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-I.
• ssPh-h-f-§-Ä aqe[mXp-¡fmbn hnL-Sn-
¡p-¶-Xnv ka-b-sa-Sp-¡pw. AXn-m Sp-
¶-Xnv c−mgvN ap¼v a®n tNÀ¡-Ww.
• cmk-h-f-§Ä Sp¶ ka-b¯pw hnf-I-
fpsS hnhn[ hfˬm-Z-i-I-fnepw

39. hfw tNÀ¡p¶ coXn
• hfÀ¨bv¡v XpSÀ¨-bmbn Bh-iy-apÅ
ss{S-P³ Xh-W-I-fmbn ÂImw.
• thcp-I-fpsS hfÀ¨sb klm-bn-¡p¶
t^mkv^-dkv BZy L«-¯n thWw.
tdm¡vt^m-kvt^äv a®n ebn-¡m³ ka-
b-sa-Sp¡psa¶-Xn-m 2þ4 BgvN ap¼v.
• s]m«mkyw hfÀ¨-bpsS FÃm L«-§-
fnepw shW-sa-¶-Xn-m Xh-W-I-fm-bn.

40. kwtbm-PnX hf-{]-tbmKw
Xmsg ]d-bp-¶-h-sbÃmw ]cn-K-Wn-¨p-sIm-−pÅ
hf-{]-tbmKamWv kwtbm-PnX hf-{]-tbmKw
• a®nsâ `uXn-I, cmknI LS--IÄ Ap-Iq-e-
am-¡pI.
• a®n Bh-iy-¯nv ssPhmwiw e`y-am-
¡pI.
• t]mj-I-aqeI§Ä -Bh-iy-¯nv e`y-am-¡pI.
• a®nsâ A¾Xbpw eh-Wmw-ihpw hnf-IÄ¡v
tbmPn¨ Xc-¯n-em-¡pI.

41. a®nsâ ^e-]pjvSn
• agbpw shbnepw þ aqe-I-§Ä s]s«¶v jvS-
s¸-Spw.
• IqSp-XÂ hnfhv In«p¶ hnf-IÄ þt]m-j-I-
jvSw IqSpw.
• An-b-{´n-X-amb as®m-en¸v þjvSw
]ns¶bpw IqSpw.
• ^e-]pjvSn ne-nÀ¯m³ jvS-s¸-Sp-¶-Xnv
Xpey-ambn aqe-I-§Ä Xncn¨v ÂIWw

42. ssPh-h-fw-þ-{]-iv-§Ä
• ssIImcyw sN¿m-pÅ _p²n-ap«v
• DbÀ¶ hne
• Ipdª e`yX þ C´y-bn Irjn-sN-¿p¶
hnf-I-sfÃmw IqSn a®nÂn¶pw Hcp hÀjw
28 Zi-e£w S¬ t]mj-I-§Ä FSp-¡p-¶p.
NmW-Iw, ap-jy-a-ew, hnfm-h-in-jvS-§Ä XpS-
§n-bh FÃmw Iq«n-bmepw BsI 5.6 Zi-
e£w S¬ t]mj-I-§tf Xncn¨v ÂIm³
Ign-bq.
• ssPh-hfw am{Xw D]-tbm-Kn-¨m slIvS-dnv 5
S¬ F¶Xv 14 S¬ Bbn DbÀ¯-Ww.

43. cmk-h-fw-þ-{]-iv-§Ä
• Aan-X-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-¨m ]mcn-Øn-XnI
{]iv-§Ä
• ssPh-hfw CÃmsX cmk-hfw am{X-ambn
D]-tbm-Kn-¨m a®nse t]mj-I-tiJcw
CÃm-Xm-Ipw. kq£va-aq-e-I-§-fpsS Ipd-
hp-−m-Ipw.
• CXv a®n-s Xs¶ _m[n-¡pw.

44. ssPh-Ir-jnþ]cn-anXn-IÄ
• hym]-I-ambn ssPh-Irjn¡v Bh-iy-amb ssPh-
h-f-¯nsâ e`yX C¶nÃ.
• ]s£ ssPhhfw Bh-iy-¯nv e`y-amb Øe-
§-fn DXv]m-Z--£-a-X-bn amä-an-ÃmsX cmk-
hfw ]qÀ®-ambn Hgn-hm¡n Irjn km²y-hpam-
Wv.
• C¶v cmk-hfw D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Øe¯v cmk-
hfw ]qÀ®-ambpw Hgn-hm-¡p-t¼mÄ DXv]m-Z--£-
a-X-bn Ipd-hp-h-cpw. F¶m 5þ6 hÀjw
sIm−v DXv]m-Z--£-a-X- hos−-Sp-¡m-m-Ipw.

45. hf-{]-tbm-Kw-þ-im-kv{Xo-bX
• a®nse ImÀ_¬-þ-ss-{S-P³ Ap-]mXw
ne-nÀ¯-W-sa-¦n hnf-]-cn-{I-a-¯nÂ
]bÀhÀ¤§Ä DÄs¸-Sp-¯p-Ibpw
ss{S-P³ hf-§Ä tNÀ¡p-Ibpw
thWw.
• CXv a®n ne-n¡-W-sa-¦nÂ
ImÀ_¬ IqSn a®n D−mI-Ww.
CXnv ssPhmwiw Xs¶ thWw.

46. kwtbm-PnX hf-{]-tbm-Kw
• ssPh-h-f-{]-tbmKw a®nsâ ^e-]pjvSn
ne-nÀ¯p-¶-Xn-m-h-iy-amb `uXn-I,
cmk-Kp-W-§Ä sa¨-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-Xn ]cn-
an-X-s¸-Sp-¯pI.
• t]mj-I-aq-e-I-§Ä cmk-h-f-§-fn-eqsS
ÂIp-I.
• A¾X IqSnb a®n Ip½mbw tNÀ¡p-I.
• Ip½mb¯ntâbpw cmk-h-f¯ntâbpw
Afhv Bh-iy-¯nv am{Xw

47. {i²n-t¡-−h
a®v ^e-]p-jvSn-tbmsS
ne-n¡-W-sa-¦n ssPh-hfw,
cmk-hfw, Pohm-Wp-hfw, Ip-½mbw
F¶nh Bh-iym-p-k-cWw tNÀ¡Â,
If-n-b-{´-Ww, Dghv Ipd-¡Â,
]pX-bn-SoÂ, hnf-]-cn-{I-aw, ]b-dp-Ir-jn,
a®p-kw-c-£Ww
F¶n-h-bn-seÃmw {i²n-t¡−Xp−v.

48. IoS-m-in-n-IÄ
• 1845-þ-AbÀem³UnÂþsF-dnjv s]m«täm
^man³-þ-I-cn-¨n tcmKw þacWw 4 tImSn.
• 1943-þ44-þ-_w-KmÄ £maw-þ-s-Ãns
_m[n¨ slÂhnt´m kvt]mdnbw eo^v
kvt]m«v F¶ IpanÄ tcmKw-þ-a-cWw B
hÀjw am{Xw 15 e£w t]À.
• C¯cw kml-Ncyw Hgn-hm-¡m-pÅ {ia-
¯n n¶pw IoS-m-in-n-IÄ þ
“nÈ_vZ hk´w” ]pÀhn-Nn-´--¯nv
XpS-¡-an-«p.

49. IoS-nb{´Ww
1. bm{´nI nb-{´Ww þ ssIsIm-−v,
sIWn D]-tbm-Kn-¨v, kqcy-Xm-]w, NqSv Ch
D]-tbm-Kn-¨v.
2. Irjn-coXn D]-tbm-Kn-¨v.
3. ssPhnI nb-{´Ww þ FXnÀ {]mWn-
IÄ, ]cm-Z-§Ä, Cc-]n-Sn-b-·mÀ, tcmKm-
Wp-¡Ä F¶nh D]-tbm-Kn-¨v.
4. cmk-n-b-{´Ww þ cmk-]-ZmÀ°-§Ä D]-
tbm-Kn-¨v.

50. hÀ¤o-I-cWw
• {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶ coXn
1. DZ-c-Io-S-m-in-n--þ-h-b-än-se-¯p¶p (ImÀ_m-dnÂ)
2. kv]Ài-Io-S-m-in-n--þ-Xz¡neqsS (am-e-¯n-tbm¬)
3. [qa-Io-S-m-in-n--þizmkmfn-bn-eqsS (m-]vX-eo³)
• cmk-L-S
1. ImÀ_-WnI Io-S-m-in-n-
2. AImÀ_-WnI Io-S-m-in-n-

51. cmk-Io-S-m-in-n-IÄ
• A]-I-S-km-[y-X-¡-p-k-cn¨v hnhn[ te_-
ep-IÄ
1. Nph¸v
2. aª
3. oe
4. ]¨
Nph¸pw aªbpw te_-epÅ IoS-m-in-n-
IÄ A]-I-S-Im-cn-I-fm-Wv. Ch Ign-hXpw Hgn-
hm-¡Ww

52. IoS-m-in-n-IfpsS te_epIÄ
Nph¸v aª
• BÂUn-ImÀ_v • F³tUm-Ä^m³
• s_µn-tbm-ImÀ_v • t{]mkn-tm-t^mkv
• -^q-d-Um³ • {Snbm-tkm-t^mkv
• ImÀ_-dn³
• UnHm-IvtkmÀ_v oe
• ^ntm-_q-ImÀ_v • _nIvtkmÄ
• s^tm-Ivko-ImÀ_v • skhn-tUmÄ
• sFtkm-t{]m-ImÀ_v • skhn-tamÄ
• satXm-a-bnÂ

53. ssPh-Io-S-m-in-n-IÄ
• ]pIbne¡jmbw
• ths¸-®-¸m-bkw
• th¸n³Ip-cp-I-jmbw
• as®® an{inXw
• Xpf-kn-bn-e-an-{inXw
• Im´m-cn-ap-fIp embn

54. a®v acn-¡m-Xn-cn-¡m³
a®nse ck-X{´w Adn-bpI.
a®npw sNSn¡pw
Bh-iy-ap-ÅXp ÂIpI.
Bh-iy-ap-ÅXp am{Xw.