This document discusses the relationship between economic development and air pollution in Botswana. It outlines various sources of air pollution in the country, including industries, fossil fuel combustion, vehicles, and agriculture. In particular, mining operations like the BCL Mine in Selebi Phikwe are highlighted as major polluters. While economic growth is needed, unchecked industrialization has caused air quality problems and negative health effects. The document argues that environmental protection and economic development must be balanced to ensure sustainable development and a clean environment for the future. The study aims to evaluate air pollution impacts, provide policy recommendations, and help Botswana implement international agreements to mitigate pollution.

1. ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT VS
EFFECTS OF AIR
POLLUTION ON
HUMAN HEALTH; A
CASE STUDY OF
BOTSWANA
30 April 2016
SOC 439
Department of Sociology
Authors: Koketso Kanekane and Edward Sebua,
Emmanuel Mothata, Zingale Maseko
Dr Sello_Project[29April 2016]

2. 1
INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is any alteration to the atmospheric condition to which certain concentration of
some substances emitted into it causing the undesirable effects to human beings and their
environment. Engineers Joint Council [United States of America], defined air pollution as
“the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes,
gases, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities with characteristics, and of duration such
as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to which unreasonable interfere with the
comfortable enjoyment of life and property (Agarwal, 2009, p. 5)”.
Substances that cause air pollution are called pollutants; there two types of pollutants.
Primary and Secondary pollutants (resultants of the reactions of primary pollutants with other
substances in the atmosphere). Primary pollutants are kind of pollutants which are directly
emitted into the atmosphere their sources and these includes; Carbon compounds, such as
CO, CO2, CH4, and VOCs, Nitrogen compounds, such as NO, N2O, and NH3 and Sulphur
compounds, such as H2S and SO2. Secondary pollutants are pollutants which are not emitted
into the atmosphere directly but emitted indirectly from their sources into the atmosphere and
they include; NO2 and HNO3 formed from NO, Ozone (O3) formed from photochemical
reactions of nitrogen oxides and VOCs, Sulphuric acid droplets formed from SO2,nitric acid
droplets formed from NO2, Sulphates and nitrates aerosols (e.g., ammonium (bi)sulphate and
ammonium nitrate) formed from reactions of sulphuric acid droplets and nitric acid droplets
with NH3, respectively and Organic aerosols formed from VOCs in gas-to-particle reactions.
It may be claimed that air pollution started with the anthropogenic emission (man-made) but
also the geogenic emissions and biogenic emissions are also the contributors to air pollution.
Geogenic emissions are the emissions caused by the non-living world like volcanic eruptions,
natural fires and sea-salt emissions while the biogenic are those emissions from the living
world such as volatile organic compound emissions from forests and methane from swaps.
These all alters the composition of the natural atmosphere because they both increase the
concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
There are various sources that produce air pollutants, namely; industries and manufacturing
activities, burning fossil fuels, household activities and agricultural activities.
Emissions from industries release large amounts of gaseous materials like SO2 ,NOx , VOCs,
CO into the atmosphere; corresponding to this, (Science Matters Module 4- Earth and
Beyond, 2002, p. 127) argues “that many industries produce serious air pollution as industrial

3. 2
chemicals are released in the air.” The combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and
other factory combustibles that used in power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and
waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices are
major cause of air pollution. According to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (2014)1,
industry accounted for 21% of total greenhouse gas emissions, electricity and heat production
for another 25%, and transportation accounted for 14%. The combustion of coal, petroleum
and other fossil fuels which are then emitted by vehicles and airplanes thus causing immense
amount of pollution. Many household products we use on day to day basis like detergents,
furniture polish, disinfectants, deodorizers, paints, stain removers, and even cosmetics release
chemicals that may be harmful to human health as well as cause environmental concerns.
Inefficient cooking fuels and technologies used by families in poor and middle income
countries produce high levels of household air pollution with a range of health-damaging
pollutants2. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry according to (Rene & Chavis, 2010)produce
pollutants and/or pollution in so that greenhouse gas emissions from the cultivation of crops
and livestock are created by a combination of factors, common agricultural by products such
as ammonia3are one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere and the production of
methane by cattle. Another cause is deforestation, where the need for pastureland and
growing fields requires the removal of trees that would otherwise sequester carbon and clean
the air. According to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, agriculture accounts for 24% of
annual emissions4. With one voice (EEA 2005) citied in(Aparicio, Guerreiro, Viana, Reche,
& Querol, 2013) argues that agricultural emissions contribute about 2.5 and 8.5% of total
emissions of primary PM2.5 and PM10, respectively, whereas it is responsible of 94% of the
total NH3 emissions.
Salmon Valley Business and Innovation Centre defines economic development as the
development of economic wealth of countries, regions or communities for the well-being of
their inhabitants. From a policy perspective, economic development can be defined as efforts
1See more at: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/Accessed 01 April 2016 (Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of
Climate Change)
2 A common class of pollutants emitted from household products is volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Sources for these pollutants include paint strippers and othersolvents,wood preservatives,air fresheners,
automotive products,and dry cleaned clothing
Read more at: http://www.pollutionissues.com/Ho-Li/Household-Pollutants.html#ixzz45o8c1sTT Accessed 14
April 2016
3 A key ingredient to fertilizer, Ammonia is a source of nitrogen for growing plants.Every fertilizer contains
nitrogen either in the form of ammonia or compounds derived from ammonia see more at:
http://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/73262.aspx Accessed 14 April 2016
4 However, this estimate does not include the CO2 that ecosystems remove from the atmosphere by sequestering
carbon in biomass, dead organic matter and soils, which offset approximately 20% of emissions from this sector.

4. 3
that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community by creating
and/or retaining jobs and supporting or growing incomes and the tax base5.Congruent to this
(Feldman, Hadjimichae, Kemeny, & Lanahan, 2014)argues that economic development is
concerned with quality improvements, the introduction of new goods and services, risk
mitigation and the dynamics of innovation and entrepreneurship and about positioning the
economy on a higher growth trajectory. It is therefore important to appreciate and evaluate
the relationship of economic development, economic growth and environmental depletion
(problems) such as air pollution so we make sure neither of the two succeeds at the expense
of the other. Policymakers need to be educated on types, sources and effects of different
kinds of particulate matters causing air pollution so that the emissions can be regulated6.
Background
Air pollution is one of the major environmental issues in this century around world, in Africa
and in Botswana; reportedly air pollution is one of the general health risks in Botswana7 and
the capital city Gaborone in “The 10 Most Air-Polluted Cities in the World” being ranked
number 8 in 20118. The country reported very high concentrations of particulate matter9
(PM10 - particles with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 µm) contributing to low air
quality. In the days before the proliferation of large cities and industry, nature's own systems
kept the air fairly clean. With increasing urbanisation and industrialisation, humans started to
release more wastes into the atmosphere than nature could cope with. Since then, more
pollution has been added to the air by proponents of economic development and growth
namely industrial, commercial and domestic activities and sources. As these activities and
sources are usually found in major cities, the gases that are produced are usually concentrated
in the air around them. Mmegi newspaper, (Moseki, 2009) cited Hans-Peter Tomschi,one of
the consultants of European Union-sponsored Economic Diversification of the Mining Sector
(EDMS) Programme who said that air emissions from BCL Mine in Selibe Phikwe affected
most parts of the town nearly all year round, irritating the lungs and noses of residents and
5 See more at http://www.svbic.com/node/24 Accessed 11 April 2016
6Visit http://food.ndtv.com/health/need-to-clean-delhi-air-to-stop-irreversible-damage-to-heart-1259750
Accessed 15 April 2016
7 Read more at: https://www.iamat.org/country/botswana/risk/air-pollution Accessed 28 March 2016
8 See:http://science.time.com/2011/09/27/the-10-most-air-polluted-cities-in-the-world/Accesed 15April 2016
9Particulate matter (PM) is a key air quality indicator since it is the most common air pollutant that affects our
short term and long term health.

5. 4
putting some in danger of respiratory illnesses10. The adverse effects of air pollution were
graphically illustrated in London in 1952 when, in just a few days, an estimated 4000 people
died from effects of fine particle pollution11. Economic development also meant that more
people have more disposable income and the ownership of vehicles has skyrocketed. Car
dealership in Botswana has tremendously grown, especially in Mogoditshane the ‘capital
city’ of second hand car business in the country12; appropriately the assertion that pollution
level have also raised. Many Batswana own cars nowadays and (Motlhoka, 2013) in his
article in Sunday Standard peace with this argues that “the insatiable demand for cheaper and
more affordable imported second hand cars combined with the business community’s
propensity to exploit a seemingly flourishing niche in a market, has over the past decade set
the once sluggish township buzzing with activity” bringing environmental problems like air
and noise pollution and land use problems. It has also been reported that Gaborone's pollution
and probably the whole of Botswana peaks in winter, it has its air pollution particles more
concentrated from the month of May. Air pollution, smog for example since the beginning of
the 20th century it has been noted that its main cause is the combustion of petroleum and
fossil fuel due to increase of automobiles and industrial revolution hence an increase in the
emission of those greenhouse gases.
Studies show that air pollution it can be only easy to prevent than to deal with it once it has
happened. This problem of irreversibility of air pollution sufficient reason for us to take
preventative measures against it. It is possible to reverse air pollution but not its effects, to
that degree (Yanagita, et al., 2013) argues that long term exposure to air pollution has been
associated with decreased lung function and the normal lung function is not restored even
after improvement of air pollution. It is essential for every city to prevent air pollution. It
should be noted that though air pollution can be reversed, it comes at a price. In an attempt to
clean up the smoggy air in the Chinese capital according to (Duggan, 2014) in her article in
The Guardian, Beijing's authorities have introduced a new set of measures to cut emissions
and allocated 760 billion Yuan (£75.8 billion) to improve the city's air quality by 2017.
10 More at:
http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=4&aid=43&dir=2009/October/Friday16#sthash.Cl2gcPu1.dpuf Accessed
15 April 2016
11For more Historical explanation see: http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/air/aq4kids/pollution.asp Accessed 14 April
2016
12(Motlhoka, 2013) Sunday Standard agrees that car dealership has grown and contends that it is perhaps not
surprising the diversity of nationalities that run the car dealerships in Mogoditshane (Nigerians, Ghanians,
Indians, Arabic and Zimbabweans)

6. 5
Statement of the Problem
Economic growth and environmental should be balanced; they should both be prioritised in
development, George Kenyon in (CBN News, 2016) argues that “Not only can economic and
environmental improvement coexist, but they actually must”. The environment should
provide the economy for development with services and resources like land, air, diamonds
and coal. The economy should in return give back to the environment in terms of funds for
environmental protection programs like buying new effective eco-friendly machineries and
pollution control devices like electrostatic precipitator (ESP)13. Economic growth should be the
hope for solutions to environmental problems like air pollution.
However, Economic development as income bringing activity taking place at the expense of
the environment and natural resources, as stated by (Luo, et al., 2014) who argues that
environmental problems result from economic expansion which increases extraction of
natural resources and accumulation of waste, in the end exceeding the carrying capacity of
the biosphere to the pollutants. In one voice (Omoju , 2014), argues that most developing
countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, depend majorly on natural resources for
revenue and foreign exchange. These economics are driven by funds generated from
exploitation of natural resources such as coal, oil and gas, agricultural and forest resources,
gold and copper; nothing or little of the funds from the economies has been given towards
environmental protection. The key to this industrializing according to Royal_B14, is the use
of a lot of resources and polluted the air and rivers; hence polluting and depleting have been
the creation and development of modern capitalism.
The progress of economic development at with little or no regard at all of the environment
and its natural resources depletion leads to greater uncertainty and no confidence about the
future. “While Modernism, in all its manifestations as associated with ideas of progress and
confidence according to (Kelly, 2012),” the world is not moving in the direction of progress
with regards to environment, things are getting worse; despite all decades of modernity and
whatever the modernist tried to eradicate is still rampant and even worse; the environment is
even more polluted and degraded15. The funds used to deal with air pollution related
problems and issues; which is often at times expensive, could be used by the Government in
or for other socioeconomic life improvement sectors like education and better infrastructure.
13 An air cleaner which is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas.
14 More at http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/36032_13.pdf Accessed 28 April 2016
15Inspired by Post Modernisation theory

7. 6
In harmony with this, (CBN News, 2016) interview with John Doe, argues that
“Environmental economists have made it clear: externalities associated with 'dirty' industry
far exceed the benefit. Even ignoring CO2, coal power causes 15 to 20 cents of damage per
kWh. Natural gas is closer to five to 10 cents. If you internalize the external costs you see that
clean energy saves money.”
Significance of the Study
Data collected from the study will be instrumental in determining, recommending and
guiding the policy instruments for air pollution; that will help in the local implementation of
International Conventions and Protocols Botswana has signed16 like the 1997 Kyoto
Protocol17. These policy instruments will influence production, consumption and disposal
behaviour of individuals, communities and firms to more effective ones; the one that will
ensure a more sustainable hopeful future for all. These instruments will also ensure that we
have a development characterized by prioritization of both economic growth and
environmental protection. According to Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister Stéphane Dion
(CBN News, 2016), “There is a way to bring the economy and the environment together that
both of them have identified as a priority.” This study will lead Botswana to a direction many
countries around the world are taking or have undertook of an environmental conscious
development, Canadian Environment Minister Catherine McKenna at a meeting with her
provincial counterparts argued that “We all agree that in the 21st century Canada's prosperity
must be built on the principle that the economy and the environment go hand in hand”, (CBN
News, 2016).
The study aims to evaluate the effects of air pollution emanating from Botswana`s economic
activities, special attention given to mining (BCL Mine in Selebi Phikwe) and intends use the
data to provide a policy recommendations and options with regards to air pollution.
Objectives
 To enumerate the different types and causes of air pollution in Botswana
 To determine the effects of air pollution in the environment and human health
(beings)
 To find out the pros and cons of the possible instruments that can be used to prevent
and control air pollution in Botswana
16These instruments can useful in guiding the US$ 2million bilateral deal budget Botswana has signed with Italy
in April 27th, 2016 to reduce carbon emissions to 2 degrees Celsius.
17 Which established goals to stabilise and reduce atmospheric greenhouse gases.

8. 7
Literature Review
The health effects of air pollution have been subject to intense study in recent years.
Exposure to pollutants such as airborne particulate matter and ozone has been associated with
increases in mortality and hospital admissions due to respiratory and cardiovascular disease
(Brunekreef & Holgate, 2002, p. 1233). In agreement with this (Anoop, et al., 2013)argues
that the adverse effects of air pollution on cardiovascular health have been established in a
series of major epidemiological and observational studies. In assessing the association
between long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and cause-specific mortality in a
cohort of elderly people; (Hoek, Brunekreef, Goldbohm, Fischer, & Piet , 2002, p. 1207)
identified a consistent association between cardiopulmonary mortality and living near a major
road, the association was assessed with Cox’s proportional hazards models, with adjustment
for potential confounders.
Similarly studying the relative effects of PM2.5 constituent and daily mortality in six
California counties, (Ostro, Feng, Broadwin, Green, & Lipsett, 2007) found out that PM2.5
mass and several constituents were associated with multiple mortality categories, especially
cardiovascular deaths. Stronger associations were also observed between mortality and
additional pollutants, including sulfates and several metals, during the cool season. Poisson
regressions incorporating natural splines were used to control for time-varying covariates and
effect estimates were determined for each component in each county and then combined
using a random-effects model. Certainly, there is no shortage of disagreement within the
study of the effects of air pollution on human life, also using the Poisson regression model for
control of time trends, seasonal variations and temperature related weather effects18;
(Sheppard, Levy, Norris, Larson, & Koeing, 1999) regressed daily hospital admissions to
Seattle [Washington] from 1987 through 1994 on particulate matter less than PM10 and
PM2.5, sulphur dioxide [SO2], ozone and carbon monoxide [CO]. PM and CO were found to
be jointly associated with asthma admissions over the eight year period of the study but did
not observe an association for SO2; the highest increase in risk in the spring and fall seasons
was estimated (Epidemiology 1999; 10:23-30).
Noticing the difficult methodological issues involved, and the diversity of analytical
techniques so far applied in the health effects of air pollution, arguing that they hinder direct
18 Exception of seasonally monitored ozone which was supplemented incomplete pollutant measures imputation
model to create time series of exposure measures.

9. 8
between-study comparability and the drawing of clear conclusions19, (Katsouyanni, et al.,
1995) used the APHEA (Air Pollution on Health: European Approach) to evaluate the
hypothesis that the current levels of pollutants in Europe and North America have adverse
short term effects on health. APHEA project was also an attempt to provide quantitative
estimates of the short-term health effects of air pollution, using an extensive data base from
10 different European countries, which represent various social, environmental and air
pollution situations.
This counter argument is supported by evidence from (Moloi, Chimidza, Lindgren, Viksna, &
Standzenieks, 2002) in order to characterize size fractionated particulate matter in a rural
village Serowe in Botswana with respect to light absorption and used Goteborg town
(Sweden) to compare aerosol between the two locations. It appeared that the pollution
sources of Serowe were rather easily identified as compared to Goteborg; arguably the factors
may contain not only one source but also a mixture of several sources located in the same
direction in relation to the measurement site with many different industrial activities.Within
the framework of the APHEA project, the methodology of analysing epidemiological time
series data, performing meta-analysis were developed and standardized. The exposure data
consisted of daily measurements of black smoke, sulphur dioxide, suspended particles,
nitrogen dioxide and ozone each available in several cities from already existing monitoring
networks. The collaborative APHEA group final analysis used autoregressive Poisson models
allowing for over dispersion and the effects were reported as relative risks contrasting defined
increases in the corresponding pollutant levels.
In this manner (Asare & Darkoh , 2001) argues that, in the mining areas, air pollution
monitoring network has been expanded to cover areas such as Mmadinare, Tonota and
Serowe and a laboratory has been constructed at Selebi-Phikwe. This is to help minimise
pollution problems in these areas but the effectiveness of it leaves much to be desired.
Therefore, more research and monitoring activities need to be done especially on the impacts
of pollution on people’s health, water resources, vegetation and other natural resources. This
project follows this call for research on impacts of air pollution on people’s health and aims
to suggest policy options based on these effects data.
19 Until 1992, when the APHEA (short-term effects of Air Pollution on Health: a European Approach) proposal
was submitted, several studies using more advanced analytical methods had already indicated health effects at
relatively low levels of pollutants (Katsouyanni, et al., 1995, p. 1031).

10. 9
Methodology
The study utilises the quantitative approach, measurement that follows a deductive approach
and produces data in the form of numbers; the approach that according to (Neuman, 2014, p.
135)“move abstract ideas to specific data collection techniques to precise numerical
information”. Data was collected from existing statistics, what (Neuman, 2014) referred to as
secondary survey data and argued that “in it you reanalyse previously collected survey or
similar data that another researcher has gathered” page 273.
Secondary data is relatively cheap and saves time, permits comparisons across different
groups for analysis and importantly allows asking about issues not addressed by original
researchers and answer new questions. This form of data collection has limitations though as
noted by (Neuman, 2014), a problem in finding the appropriate units of analysis, problems of
validity which occurs when theoretical definition does not match the existing one and
problems in reliability which develops as when the methods of data collection and definitions
change over time20.
The data was collected from newspaper articles like The Voice Newspaper, CBN News and
official documents such as the annual reports by Department of Mines (1999) that are in
relation with air pollution and the residents of Selebi Phikwe and surrounding areas. The
study used data from Botswana and its subjects were people living and working in and
around Selebi Phikwe.
Results and Analysis
According to (Asare & Darkoh , 2001), the number of people who have suffered from other
respiratory diseases in Selebi-Phikwe significantly decreased by 71 percent from 1990 to
1996 even though it was the second highest after cough and cold in 1996. In 1996, other
respiratory diseases in Selebi-Phikwe recorded the highest figure of 11,621 (37 percent)
compared with Francistown and Serowe or Palapye, which recorded 17 percent and 17.6
percent, respectively. The number of people suffering from asthma increased in Selebi-
Phikwe from 751 in 1990 to 1,785 in 1996 showing an increase of 159 percent.
One of the greatest impacts is the hazard posed by air pollution to the health of the local
population. The common diseases found in the area are cough, asthma, flu and tuberculosis.
20See (Neuman, 2014, pp. 274-278)“existing data are inappropriate for the research question, lack of sufficient
understanding of the substantive topic; because the data is easily accessible anyone who knows little about a
topic could make erroneous assumptions or false interpretations about results fromit and missing data that could
have been lost or never collected.”

11. 10
The respiratory tract-related health problems that are found in the area are, to a large extent,
related to the effects of the air pollution caused by the emission of sulphur dioxide from the
BCL mine. About 68 percent of the respondents attribute the major cause of their health
problems to the sulphur- dioxide pollution in the area. The most prevalent diseases that
people in Selebi-Phikwe area suffer from are cough, flu, asthma and tuberculosis (about 29,
28, 16 and 17 percent, respectively, were reported).
The Chief Medical Officer in the Selebi-Phikwe hospital indicated that the most common
cases treated daily in the hospital are respiratory tract, gastro-intestinal tract (viral infections),
haematological, and genito urinary infections21. The respiratory tract diseases are attributed
mainly to the sulphur dioxide pollution in the area and bacteria infections due to poor living
conditions, sanitation and hygiene. On average the hospital treats between 150 and 200
patients in a day and out of the number, about 50 to 60 percent are respiratory related
complications, according to information provided at the Selebi-Phikwe Government Hospital
in 1999, states. The health problems indicated by respondents confirm with the national
health statistics compiled in 1990, 1991 and 1996 for Selebi-Phikwe states (Asare & Darkoh ,
2001). Similarly, (Ekosse, 2008)All the mining the enterprises in site four indicated that 20-
30% of the workers complained of coughing regularly as well experiencing frequent chest
pains. Chest pains have been related to breathing of gaseous fumes. The PAM including
gases such as SO2 and to a lesser extent H2S have a choking effect on human beings,
affecting their respiratory system and causing them to have chest pains, asserts(Dominic , et
al., 2006). Persistent coughing experienced by workers was probably provoked by
environmental conditions such as gases from mining, smelting activities and climatic factors
like changing seasons.
During winter season, it become very dry and windy in Selibe Phikwe, causing a large
number of dust particles to be suspended in the air for longer periods; causing those exposed
outdoor of such environments including PAM and eventually suffering from respiratory tract
illness and diseases. Environmental factors such as air pollution from industrial activities,
climate and tobacco smoking can cause nasal congestion thereby triggering headaches. (Pope,
Dockery, & Schwartz, 1995)& (Pope, et al., 1999b)observed that there were increased
hospital admissions because of respiratory problems and increased emergency room visits to
21 AIDS is at the bottomof the list of community diseases reported by respondents.

12. 11
hospitals due to respiratory problems caused by pollution emanating from PAM, SO2 and
toxic fumes. Gaborone and probably the whole of pollution peaks in winter, with its air
pollution particles concentrated from the month of May. The concentration thins out through
August and September as seasons change from winter to autumn and this has been the pattern
for a decade now, asserts Professor22 Tej Singh Verma in The Voice Newspaper interview
with (Letsholo, 2011). This may be attributed an increase in the use of heating devices like
heaters, air conditioners and in the use burning cheap fuel sources like cow dung and fire
wood by the poor to warm themselves up. The main pollutants in Botswana are particulate
matter and sulphur dioxide.
Policy Options [Recommendations]
Economic instruments: The cause of natural resource mismanagement and environmental
degradation in the developing countries, as in the developed countries, are policy and market
failures. Regulations do not correct these failures; they create new ones. The very purpose of
economic instruments is to correct policy and market failures. The main instruments now in
use for environmental protection are charges, environmentally related taxes, tradable permit
systems, non- compliance fees, performance bonds, liability payments, and subsidies for
environmental protection (Magnus Staudte, 2001).
In order to facilitate measuring the effectiveness of environmental taxes they have been
classified into three main types of environmental taxes, according to their main policy
objectives, first, cost-covering charges; designed to cover the costs of environmental services
and abatement measures, such as water treatment (user charges) and which may be used for
related environmental expenditures (earmarked charges). Secondly, Incentive taxes; designed
to change the behaviour of producers and/or consumers and lastly, fiscal environmental taxes;
which are designed mainly to raise revenues. Economic instruments are a cost effective and
create potential revenue sources for governments, offer greater flexibility in dealing with
smaller activities and dynamic form of regulation to reduce pollution than conventional
measures.
Command and control instruments: The command and control pattern of regulation sets
uniform targets for how much firms should emit, often by dictating the processes that should
be used in their facilities. The technology-based specify the methods and equipment that
22 In Environmental Physics and a lecturer at the University of Botswana.

13. 12
firms must use to meet the target. Performance standards, on the other hand set an overall
target for each firm, or plant, and give firms some discretion in how to meet the standard.
Command and control instruments are relatively easy and cheap to implement but there is
need for effective pollution monitoring for them to work. They also restrict and dictate
technology to use, making them inflexible and discourages innovation.
An economic instrument can achieve a given level of environmental protection for lowest
overall cost by creating a framework that allows for differential response by companies
depending on their ability to make reductions. In contrast, target or performance-based
command and control regulation is less efficient because it ignores the fact that some plants
can make reductions more cheaply than others. To control the overall level of pollution, the
regulator simply adjusts the level of the charge or the quantity of permits, maintains (Austin,
1999).
Conclusion
The Department of Mines Air Pollution Monitoring Unit has established that the BCL
copper-nickel complex is the largest source of industrial air pollution in Selebi-Phikwe
(Department of Mines, 1999, p. 18)23. Industrial activities like mining in Selebi Phikwe, the
rise in pollution levels in winter because of heating sources to keep people warm and the
increasing use of second hand auto mobiles in Botswana, this paper argues that the
Government make use of instruments to control and prevent air pollution, they can be useful
for the implementation of the existing acts like the Waste management Strategy and Act of
1998; ultimately improving the socioeconomic life of Batswana and protecting the
environment.
23 The emissions are mainly SO2 discharged at a height of 153m through the main stack. Total emissions from
the BCL smelter complex are estimated to be 46,850 kilograms per hourof sulphur-dioxide and 190 kilograms
per hour of particulate matter

14. 13
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