Topic 2 -The Ecosystem Powerpoint

• 2.1 Structure of Eco System
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Organism :
• An organism is a fundamental functional
unit in ecology because it interacts
directly with the environment as well as
with other organism
e.g., Rabbits
What is Organism ?
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What is Population?
• It refers to the organism of the same
species that are in proximity to one
another
• e.g., A group of rabbit
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What is Community?
• This includes all the populations occupying a
given area.
• The size of the community depends on our
scale of reference
• The community and the non-living
environment together are referred to as an
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM or ECOSYSTEM
• e.g., pond fish and plants
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• A species is often defined as a group
of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
What is species?
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• A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that
is inhabited by particular species of animal, plant or
other type of organism.
• It is the natural environment in which an organism
lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a
species population.
What is habitat?
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Biosphere
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
Organisms
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• In biology, a species is one of the basic
units of biological classification .
• A species is often defined as a group
of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
What is species?
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• A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is
inhabited by particular species of animal, plant or other
type of organism.
• It is the natural environment in which an organism lives,
or the physical environment that surrounds a
species population.
What is habitat?
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RECAP
• What is Organism ?
• What is Population?
• What is Community?
• What is species?
• What is habitat?
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• An ecosystem has two basic components
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS
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• Biotic components is classified into
three categories:
• PRODUCERS-Autotrophic
• CONSUMERS -Heterotrophic
• DECOMPOSERS OR
SAPTROTROPHS
Biotic Components
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• Producers are things such as plants that are
fed off of but do not eat other producers or
organisms.
• Consumers are organisms (including us
humans) that get their energy from producers,
regarding the flow of energy through an
ecosystem
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CONSUMERS
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• A decomposer is an organism of decay.
• These are also called saprobes.
• They break down the remains of dead animals
and plants, releasing the substances that can
be used by other members of the ecosystem
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DECONSUMERS
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PRODUCERS
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• The non living ,physical and chemical
components of an ecosystem are called the
abiotic factors and include:
• Light
• Temperature,
• Water,
• Soil
• The atmosphere
• Climate –Light intensity, temperature range,
precipitation
What is Abiotic components?
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• In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way
of life of a species.
• Each species is thought to have a separate,
unique niche.
• The ecological niche describes how an organism
or population responds to the distribution of
resources and competitors
What is NICHE?
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• One example is squirrels that collect acorns and bury
them for winter.
• Another is honeybees that gather nectar from flowers
to make honey.
• Other organisms that may exist in the same
environment don't do this.
• For instance, a bird may live in the same tree as a
beehive, but the bird does not make honey the way
the bees do. That is not its niche.
Example for NICHE
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What is Eco System?
• A dynamic complex of plants, animals and
micro organisms inhabiting a particular area
with their non living environment interacting
as a functional unit
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Sir Arthur George Tansley (15 August 1871 - 25 November 1955) was
an English botanist who was a pioneer in the science of ecology
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2.1.2 &2.1.3 Identify and explain trophic
levels in food chains and food webs
selected from the local environment.
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• Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food
chain such as primary producers, herbivore,
primary carnivore, etc.
• Green plants form the first trophic level, the
producers.
• Herbivores form the second trophic level, while
carnivores form the third and even the fourth
trophic levels.
What is Trophic levels?
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• The feeding of one organism upon another in a
sequence of food transfers is known as a food
chain.
• Food chain is the chain of transfer of energy
from one organism to another. A simple food
chain is like the following:
• rose plant -- aphids -- beetle -- chameleon --
hawk.
What is Food chain?
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• In an ecosystem there are many different food
chains and many of these are cross-linked to
form a food web.
• Ultimately all plants and animals in an
ecosystem are part of this complex food web.
What is food web?
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Phytoplankton are the autotrophic/producers
of the ocean
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"Zooplankton" refers to small aquatic animals of heterotrophic.
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SEPTEMBER SUMMATIVE
• Date :30th September,2014-Tuesday-ME lesson
• Time:10:30am-11.30am
• Total Marks -45
• Format-IB FORMAT
• Syllabus :
• 2.1 Structure-2.1.1 to 2.1.7
• 2.2 Measuring abiotic components of the
system-
• 2.3 Measuring biotic components of the system
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2.1.4 Explain the principles of pyramids of
numbers, pyramids of biomass, and
pyramids of productivity, and construct
such pyramids from given data.
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 Trophic levels and the energy flow from one
level to the next, can be graphically depicted
using an ecological pyramid.
 Three types of ecological pyramids can
usually be distinguished namely:
1. Pyramids of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramids of productivity
What is Ecological Pyramids?
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Pyramids of numbers
• A pyramid of numbers is a graphical
representation of the numbers of
individuals in each population in a food
chain.
• A pyramid of numbers can be used to
examine how the population of a certain
species affects another
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PYRAMID OF NUMBERS represents storages
found at each trophic level.
Units vary
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Grassland
(summer)
Temperate Forest
(summer)
Producers
Primary consumers
Secondary consumers
Tertiary consumers
A few large producers (the trees) support a much larger number of
Small primary consumers (insects) that feed on the trees.
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Pyramids of Numbers
Advantages
• Overcomes the problems of pyramids of
number in a particular ecosystem
Disadvantages
• Only uses samples from populations, so it is
impossible to measure biomass exactly. also
the time of the year that biomass is measured
affects the result.
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This week topics
• Principles of pyramids of numbers, pyramids of
biomass, and pyramids of productivity
• ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ALL THE
SYSTMES
• Biomagnifications
• Bioaccumulation
• Predation
• Herbivores, Parasitism, Mutualism
• Simpson Diversity Index
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Pyramid of biomass
• The total amount of living or organic matter
in an ecosystem at any time is called
'Biomass’.
• Pyramid of biomass is the graphic
representation of biomass present per unit
area of different tropic levels, with producers
at the base and top carnivores at the tip".
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• Represents the standing stock of each trophic
level (in grams of biomass per unit area g / m2)
• Represent storages along with pyramids of
numbers
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PYRAMID OF BIOMASS represent the
standing stock at each trophic level.
Units:
J m-2
or
g m-2
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Abandoned Field Ocean
Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers
Producers
In open waters of aquatic ecosystems, the biomass primary consumers
(zooplankton) can exceed that of producers. The zooplankton eat the
Producers (phytoplankton) as fast as they reproduce, so their population
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How do we get the biomass of a trophic level to
make these pyramids?
• Take quantitative samples – known area or volume
• Measure the whole habitat size
• Dry samples to remove water weight
• Take Dry mass for sample then extrapolate to entire trophic
level
• Evaluation  It is an estimate based on assumption that
– all individuals at that trophic level are the same
– The sample accurately represents the whole habitat
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• Analysis of various ecosystems indicates that
those with squat biomass pyramids are less
likely to be disrupted by physical or biotic
changes than those with tall, skinny pyramids
(having conversion efficiencies less than 10%).
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Measurement of biomass of different
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
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Describe one method for the measurement of biomass of
different trophic levels in an ecosytem.
• Representative samples of all living organisms
in the ecosystem are collected, for example
from randomly positioned quadrats.
• The organisms are dried, by being placed in an
oven at 60-80°C.
• The mass of organisms in each trophic level is
measured using an electronic balance.
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Multiply the mean height by the stem densityGuru Ecosystem IB
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• Biomass can be assessed indirectly and
completely non destructively by counting the
number of individuals of the target species.
• Randomly selecting a sample of individuals.
• Determining mean height within the sample
(height will be an indirect measure of biomass)
• Multiply the mean height by the stem density
(number of individuals)
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• A more destructive method involves taking a
sample of individuals of the target species and
cutting them at soil level.
• Tag each individual with a label, dry it to a
stable weight and weigh it.
• Determine the mean mass of the plants in the
area and multiply by the stem density in the
area.
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Pyramids of Productivity
• A graphical representation in the shape of
a pyramid showing the distribution of
productivity or flow of energy through
the tropic levels.
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producers
10 J m-2 yr-1
100 J m-2 yr-1
1,000 J m-2 yr-1
10,000 J m-2 yr-1
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PYRAMID OF PRODUCTIVITY represents
the flow of energy through each trophic level.
Units:
J m-2 yr-1
or
g m-2 yr-1
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Pyramids of productivity
• Flow of energy through trophic levels
• Energy decreases along the food chain
– Lost as heat
• Productivity pyramids ALWAYS decrease as
they go higher – 1st and 2nd laws of
thermodynamics
• Productivity measured in units of flow (J /
m2 yr or g / m2 yr ) Joule per square metre in
year/
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• As you move up each trophic level, only 10%
of the energy is transferred.
• The other 90% is used for everyday life
functions, metabolism.
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Pyramids of productivity
• Advantages
• Most accurate system shows the actual energy
transferred and allows for rate of production.
• Disadvantages
• It is very difficult and complex to collect
energy data.
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PYRAMID OF STANDING CROP
• Pyramid diagrams may show the fixed quantity
of number, biomass or energy that exists at a
particular time in a given area or averaged
from many of these measurements.
• This is termed STANDING CROP.
• The unit would be number,dry biomass or
energy kg/m2 or J/m3.
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Figure 54.14 Food energy available to the human population at different trophic levels
Efficiency of trophic levels in relation to the total energy
available decreases with higher numbers
But efficiency of transfer always remains around that 10% ruleGuru Ecosystem IB
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2.1.5 Discuss how the pyramid
structure affects the functioning of an
ecosystem.
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Pyramid structure
affects
the functioning of
an ecosystem.
Bioaccumulation
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Biomagnification
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What is Biomagnification?
• Biomagnification is the sequence of processes
in an ecosystem by which higher
concentrations of a particular chemical, such
as the pesticide DDT, are reached in organisms
higher up the food chain, generally through a
series of prey-predator relationships.
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What is bioaccumulation?
• Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of
substances, such as pesticides, or other organic
chemicals in an organism.
• Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism
absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater.
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How does pyramid structure effect
ecosystem function?
1. Limited length of food chains
• Rarely more than 4 or 5 trophic levels
• Not enough energy left after 4-5 transfers to
support organisms feeding high up
• Possible exception marine/aquatic systems b/c
first few levels small and little structure
2. Vulnerability of top carnivores
• Effected by changes at all lower levels
• Small numbers to begin with
• Effected by pollutants & toxins passed through
system
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2.1.6 Define the terms species, population,
habitat, niche, community and ecosystem
with reference to local examples.
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• Niche can be defined as where and how a species
lives.
• In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of
life of a species.
• Each species is thought to have a separate, unique
niche.
• No two different species can have the same niche
because the niche completely defines a species.
• The ecological niche describes how an organism or
population responds to the distribution of resources
and competitors
What is NICHE?
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• One example is squirrels that collect acorns and bury
them for winter.
• Another is honeybees that gather nectar from flowers
to make honey.
• Other organisms that may exist in the same
environment don't do this.
• For instance, a bird may live in the same tree as a
beehive, but the bird does not make honey the way
the bees do. That is not its niche.
Example for NICHE
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• 2.1.7-Describe and explain
population interactions using
examples of named species.
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• In ecology, predation describes a biological
interaction where a predator feeds on its prey.
• Examples :Lion killing buffalo, Eagle killing
Rabbit, Mantis eating a bee.
Predation
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• Herbivores are organisms that are adapted to
eat plants.
• Herbivory is a form of predation in which an
organism consumes principally autotrophs
such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing
bacteria.
Herbivore
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• Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship
between organisms of different species where
one organism, the parasite, benefits at the
expense of the host.
Example :
• Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the
protein. Male mosquitos ingest plant juices.
• Heartworm of dogs, whose adults reside in the
right side of the heart
Parasitism
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Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the protein. Male
mosquitos ingest plant juices
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Heartworm of dogs, whose adults reside in the right side of the heart
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• Mutualism is a biological interaction that is
beneficial to both parties.
• Mutualism is the way two organisms biologically
interact where each individual derives a fitness
benefit (i.e. increased survivorship).
• Examples :Clownfish and sea anemones, langur
monkey curing cow's ear
Mutualism
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• 2.2 Measuring abiotic components
of the system
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• 2.2.1-List the significant abiotic
(physical) factors of an ecosystem.
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• Ecosystem can be divided into three
types
1. Marine
2. Freshwater and
3. Terrestrial
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• Marine ecosystems include the
sea,estuaries,slat marshes and Mangroves.
• Marine ecosystem all have high
concentration of slat in the water.
• Fresh water ecosystems include rivers ,lakes
and wetlands.
• Terrestrial ecosystems include all land –
based ecosystems
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Slat marshes
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Mangroves
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2.2.2 Abiotic factors in Marine
Ecosystems
Describe and evaluate methods
for measuring at least three
abiotic (physical) factors within an
ecosystem.
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Marine Ecosystems
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What are Limiting Factors of an
ecosystem?
• Limiting factors are physical or
biological necessities whose
presence or absence in
inappropriate amounts limits the
normal action of the organism.
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Limiting factor for Marine
Ecosystem
• Light
• Temperature
• Salinity
• Dissolved Gases
• Pressure
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Light is needed for photosynthesis and
vision.
• Blue light penetrates deepest.
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Temperature influences
the metabolic rate, the
rate at which reactions
proceed within an
organism.
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What is the Deepest Part of the Ocean?
• The ocean's deepest area is
the CHALLENGER DEEP (also called the
Marianas Trench), which is about 11 km
(almost 7 miles, or almost 36,000 feet) deep.
• The trench is 1,554 miles long and 44 miles
wide,
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• Most marine organisms are
ECTOTHERMIC having an internal
temperature that stays very close to
that of their surroundings.
• A few complex animals (mammals &
birds) are ENDOTHERMIC, meaning
they maintain a stable internal
temperature.
• Ocean temperature varies in both
depth and latitude.
• Ocean temperatures vary less than on
land.
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Salinity greatly affect cell membranes and
protein structure.
• Disrupts cells osmotic pressure.
• Varies because of rainfall, evaporation and
runoff from land.
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How deep is the ocean?
The average depth of the ocean is about 4,267
meters (14,000 feet).
The deepest part of the ocean is called the
Challenger Deep and is located beneath the
western Pacific Ocean in the southern end of
the Mariana Trench, which runs several
hundred kilometers southwest of the U.S.
territorial island of Guam.
Challenger Deep is approximately 11,030
meters (36,200 feet) deep.
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GASES
Dissolved Gases are necessary for
photosynthesis and respiration.
• CO2 dissolves more easily in water than O2.
• CO2 is more abundant in deep waters than
surface water.
• O2 decrease dramatically where light
penetration decreases.
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How deep can humans go
underwater?
• Breathing air, humans can go down around
350 feet without any sort of protection from
pressure
• Utilizing mixed gases, a diver can reach a little
over 300 meters
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Pressure from the layers of water above.
• Increases with increasing depth.
• To counteract the mass of heavy
muscles and bone, many swimming
fishes have gas-filled bladders.
• Deep-sea fish don’t have gas bladders,
but light bones and oily watery flesh.
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Marine Zones
• Areas of homogeneous physical
features.
• Usually based on light, temperature,
salinity, depth, latitude, behavior
and/or water density.
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By light
• Upper zone is called the Euphotic
zone and is where the rate of
photosynthesis is high.
• Lower zone is called Disphotic zone
and is where organisms can see, but
there is sufficient light for
photosynthesis.
Aphotic zone where no light
penetrates.
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By Location
Pelagic zone between water and ocean
bottom.
a. Neritic zone = near shore over the
continental shelf
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b. Oceanic zone = deep-water beyond the
continental shelf.
i. Epipelagic = photic zone of the ocean.
ii. Mesopelagic = middle ocean waters.
iii. Bathypelagic = ocean floor.
iv. Abyssopelagic = deep-ocean trenches.
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Classificationof
Organisms
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MEASURING THE ABIOTIC
FACTORS
You should be able to describe & evaluate three
methods in details with references to a named
ecosystem
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1.TEMPERATURE:-Normally measured using
thermometers or temperature probes attached
to data logger.
Seasonal & diurnal variations important ,as is
the influence of aspect
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2.LIGHT INTENSITY:
• This measured using a light meter in lux.
• Seasonal,latitide influence incident the radiation
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3.SOIL:
• Soil organic matter is assessed by baking in the
oven at over 100 degrees to evaporate off the
water and given as percentage of original soil
mass
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4.WIND SPEED:
• This is measured using an anemometer; an
instrument with cuts that spin in the wind
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5.SALINITY:
• This measured using refractometer by placing
a droplet of sample water on a lens and
allowing light to enter through the water
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6.PH:
• This measured using universal indicator or a pH
probe
7.Turbidity
• Measured in depth(m) using a sechi
disc(black& white decorated disc) lowered on a
measuring rope until it is no longer visible
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The Secchi disk measures the transparency of the water. Transparency can be
affected by the color of the water, algae, and suspended sediments. Transparency
decreases as color, suspended sediments, or algal abundance increases.
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• 2.3 Measuring biotic components of the
system
• 2.3.1-Construct simple keys and use
published keys for the identification of
organisms.
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What is Dichotomous Key?
• Dichotomous key, is an identification key
where the sequence and structure of
identification steps is fixed by the author of
the key.
• At each point in the decision process,
multiple alternatives are offered, each
leading to a result or a further choice
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SPECIES IDENTIFICATION
• This is usually done with a published
identification key or published book
• The key asks a question and the answer
determines what step to go to next, either the
name of the species or another question
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• Presence/absence of legs;
Number of legs;
Presence/absence of tentacles;
Number of tentacles;
Shape;
Visible eyes;
Vristles
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DIRECT METHODS OF ESTIMATING
OF ABUNDANCE IN ANIMALS
• Animals that don’t move quickly, such as
rocky shore limpets or grassland snails, can be
counted in quadrats giving a direct measure of
population density.
• This only suitable for species that don’t run
away
• A variety of direct sampling techniques can be
used to collect invertebrates using nets and
traps
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2.3.2 Abundance of organisms.
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Methods for Estimating Population Size
1. Quadrats
2. Capture/Mark/Release/Recapture (Lincoln
Index)
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• Knowing population size is important in
making environmental decisions that would
affect the population.
• Making a decision on an estimate that is too
high  extinction.
• Making a decision on an estimate that is too
low  unnecessarily hurt people that
depend on the animals for food & income.
Why we should know the population size of
an ecosystem?
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• ESTIMATING THE
POPULATION USING THE
NETS
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1.Freshwater nets for lake and stream
invertebrates
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2.Sweep nets for grassland and scrub
Sweep nets are sturdy nets used to collect
insects from long grass.
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4.Pit trapping and baited traps for terrestrial
invertebrates
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5.Beating trays for invertebrates in trees
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• When estimating population size it is
important to collect RANDOM
SAMPLES.
• A sample is a part of a population, part of
an area or part of some other whole thing,
chosen to illustrate what the whole
population, area or other thing is like.
• In a random sample every individual in a
population has an equal chance of being
selected.
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2.3.5 APPLY SIMPSON’S DIVERSITY INDEX
AND OUTLINE ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Simpson’s Diversity Index
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1) Simpson's diversity index (also known as
species diversity index) is one of a number of
diversity indices, used to measure diversity.
2) In ecology, it is often used to quantify the
biodiversity of a habitat.
3) It takes into account the number of species
present, as well as the relative abundance of each
species.
4) The Simpson index represents the probability that
two randomly selected individuals in the habitat
will not belong to the same species.
Simpson’s Diversity Index
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• For plant species the percentage cover in a
square is usually used;
• For animal species, for example in a river, the
number of organisms of a species is used.
• The reason percentage cover is used is because
it is usually very difficult to count all the
individual plants
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• Where:
• D = diversity index
N = total number of organisms of all species
found
• n = number of individuals of a particular species
• =Sum of
Formula for Simpson’s Diversity Index using Quadrat
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Species Number of individuals in
Ecosystem 1
Number of individuals in
Ecosystem 2
A 23 2
B 28 2
C 22 1
D 27 93
Total individuals in
ecosystem
100 98
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Simpson’s Diversity Index =
• [23x(23-1)] + [28x(28-1)] + [22x(22-1)] +[27x(27-1)]
100 x (100 – 1)
=4.08
• For Ecosystem 2:
• Simpson’s Diversity Index =
• 2x(2-1)] + [2x(2-1)] + [1x(1-1)] + [93x(93-1)]
98 x (98 – 1)
= 1.11
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RESULT
• From this it can be seen that ecosystem 1 has
the highest index of diversity.
• The larger then Simpson’s index the more
diverse.
• Increasing diversity tends to suggest more
stable ecosystems with more connections
within them.
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• Quadrats METHOD
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Using Quadrats
1. Mark out area to be sampled.
2. Place quadrates ( 1 m2, 10 m2) randomly
within the area.
3. Count how many individuals are inside
each of the quadrates.
4. Calculate the mean number of
individuals per quadrate.
5. Pop. Size = mean x total area
area of each Quadrat
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RANDOM QUDRATS SYSTEMATIC QUDRATS
Quadrat sampling is suitable for
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Quadrat method can be used to determine:
 POPULATION DENSITY = number of
individuals of each species per area.
 PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY =
percent of each species found within an
area.
 PERCENTAGE COVER = percent of
plant covering a given area.
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Coconut tree
Grass
Which one is easy to calculate the biomass?
Problems?
Problems?
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• 2.3.2-Describe and evaluate methods for
estimating the biomass of trophic levels in a
community.
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• Biomass is calculated to show the amount of
biological material
• Biological molecules are held together by
captured sunlight energy and so the greater
the biomass,the greater the amount of
energy present
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What is Dry Weight Biomass?
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Self Assessment Test
• Six Species of invertebrate were found in the
same area of grassland. The numbers of
organism recorded for each were
• 8,9,12,1,4,3
• Calculate the Simpson Diversity Index for
this community
• Comment on the level of diversity in the
community
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Lincoln index
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Capture/Mark/ Release/Recapture
Lincoln index
1. Capture as many individuals as possible in the
area occupied by the animal population, using
netting, trapping or careful searching.
2. Mark each individual, without making them
more visible to predators and without harming
them.
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3. Release all the marked individuals and allow
them to settle back into their habitat.
4. Recapture as many individuals as possible
and count how many are marked and how
many are unmarked.
10 marked
14 unmarked
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Capture and Marking
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Calculate the estimated population size by using
the Lincoln Index:
population size = N1 X N2
N3
N1 = number caught and marked initially
N2 = total number caught in 2nd sample
N3 = number of marked individuals recaptured
Most suitable for animals that move around and
are difficult to find.
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Assumptions:
1. The population of organisms must be closed, with
no immigration or emigration.
2. The time between samples must be very small
compared to the life span of the organism being
sampled.
3. The marked organisms must mix completely with
the rest of the population during the time between
the two samples.
4. Organisms are not hurt or disadvantaged by being
caught and marked and therefore all organisms have
an equal opportunity of being recaptured
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EVALUATION
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2.3.4 Define the term diversity.
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DIVERSITY is a generic term for the following
points
1. Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic
characteristics of a specific species.
2. Habitat diversity is the diversity of habitats in a given
unit area.
3. Species diversity
a. Species richness – total number of species.
b. Species evenness – relative abundance of each
species.
c. Species dominance – the most abundant species.
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Figure A and B have
the same species
richness, but
different species
evenness.
A
B
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Change in the relative abundance of a
species over an area or a distance is
referred to as an ECOLOGIAL GRADIENT
Also known as Zonation.
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What is Environmental gradient?
• An environmental gradient is a gradual
change in abiotic factors through space (or
time). Environmental gradients can be related
to factors such as latitude, temperature, depth,
ocean proximity and soil humidity.
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Changes in the distribution of animals with
elevation on a typical mountain in Kenya. Another
example of Zonation
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2.4.1-Biomes
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BIOME is the collection of ecosystems
sharing similar climatic conditions.
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Uneven Solar Heating and Latitude
Earth as a whole is in thermal equilibrium, but different latitudes are not.
Moving masses of air and ocean currents transport energy from
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Cell 3 South
Cold,
dry air
falls
Moist air rises — rain
Cell 2 South
Cool, dry
air falls
Cell 1 South
Moist
air rises,
cools, and
releases
moisture
as rain
Cell 1 North
Cool, dry
air falls
Cell 2 North
Moist air rises — rain
Cell 3 NorthCold,
dry air
falls
Polar cap
Arctic tundra
60°
30°
0°
30°
60°
Polar cap
Evergreen
coniferous forest
Temperate deciduous
forest and grassland
Desert
Tropical deciduous forest
Equator
Tropical
rain forest
Tropical deciduous forest
Desert
Temperate deciduous
forest and grassland
Model of global air
circulation and
biomes.
The direction of air
flow and the ascent
and descent of air
masses in
convection cells
determine the
earth’s climatic
zones.
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Mountain
Ice and snow
Altitude
Tundra (herbs,
lichens,
mosses)
Coniferous
Forest
Tropical
Forest
Deciduous
Forest
Tropical
Forest
Deciduous
Forest
Coniferous
Forest
Tundra (herbs,
lichens, mosses)
Polar ice
and snow
Latitude
Generalized effects of altitude and latitude on climate and biomes.
Parallel changes in vegetation occur when moving from the
Equator to the poles or from the lowlands to mountaintops.
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DESERT BIOMES
Tropical desert
(Saudi Arabia)
Polar desert
(northwest China)
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GRASSLAND BIOMES
Tropical grassland (savanna)
(Harare, Zimbabwe)
Polar grassland (arctic tundra)
(Fort Yukon, Alaska)
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FOREST BIOMES
Tropical rain forest
(Manaus, Brazil) Temperate deciduous forest
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AQUATICBIOMES
Coral reefs
Rivers
Lakes Mangroves
Ocean
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High tide
Low tide
Coastal Zone
Estuarine
Zone
Continental
shelf
Open Sea
Sea level
Sun
Euphotic Zone
Bathyal Zone
Abyssal Zone
Depth in
meters
0
50
100
200
Photosynthesis
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
10,000
DarknessTwilight
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What is Biome?
A biome is a specific area characterized by
the animals and plants that live within it,
the climate conditions, the amount of water
available, the soil conditions, and the
location of the area.
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• The seven main biomes that can be found all
over the world.
• The Desert, Grasslands, Temperate
Deciduous Forests, Rainforests, Taiga, and
the Tundra
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CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMES
A fundamental classification of biomes is into:
• Terrestrial (land) biomes
• Freshwater biomes
• Marine biomes
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Terrestrial (land) biomes
Freshwater biomes
Marine biomes
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What is tropical rainforest ?
A tropical rainforest is an ecosystem usually
found around the equator.
They are common in Asia, Australia, Africa,
South America, Central America, Mexico and
on many of the Pacific Islands.
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Tropical rainforest are found in areas with high
levels of rainfall and sunlight with warm
temperatures throughout the year.
Rainfall is on average over 2500mmyr.
Tropical rainforest are found between the tropic
of cancer and Capricorn
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Major Tropical rain Forest Area
CENTRALAMERICA
THE AMAZON
AFRICA
SOUTHERN ASIA
AUSTRALASIA
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The photograph below shows a particular ecosystem.
1.State and briefly describe the ecosystem shown in the photograph
2. State whether you would expect ecosystems of the type shown in the
photograph to have a low, medium or high level of abiotic factors.
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THE AMAZON
 The Amazon is the world's largest and most famous
rainforest.
 The Amazon is home to more species of plants and
animals than any other ecosystem on the planet and
perhaps 30% of the world's species are found there.
 American rainforests are most threatened today with
large-scale agriculture (especially soybeans), clearing
for cattle pasture, subsistence agriculture by poor
farmers, and logging.
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SOUTHERN ASIA
• The rainforests of Asia stretch from India and
Burma in the west to Malaysia and the islands
of Java and Borneo in the east.
• In Southeast Asia the climate is hot and humid
all year round. In the mainland Asia it has a
subtropical climate with torrential monsoon
rains followed by a drier period.
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Productivity in TRF
• Productivity in tropical rainforest is very
high
• This is because of the high levels of rainfall
and sunlight and year-round warm
temperatures.
• They are multi-layered and provide many
different niches allowing for an enormous
variety of different organisms
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What is Freshwater Biome?
The freshwater biome is a low-saline, or sweet
water, aquatic biome that covers one fifth of
the earth's surface.
Streams, rivers, swamps, bogs, ponds, lakes,
ditches, puddles, and canals comprise the
tributaries of the freshwater biome.
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TYPES OF FRESHWATER
• There are 3 different types of freshwater
regions:
Ponds and Lakes
Streams and Rivers
Wetlands
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For the organism you have chosen, describe and evaluate a method for estimating
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STREAMS & RIVERS
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Numerous aquatic green plants and algae can
be found in these bodies.
Since there is less light, there is less diversity
of flora, and because of the lower oxygen
levels, fish that require less oxygen, such as
catfish and carp, can be found.
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1.Name an organism in an ecosystem that you have studied and state one abiotic
factor that might affect this organism.
Organism:
.........................................................................................................
Factor:
...............................................................................................................
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Marine Biomes are classified into three types.
• Coral reefs
• Estuaries
• Oceans
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Oceans
The largest of all the ecosystems, oceans are very
large bodies of water that dominate the Earth's
surface.
The ocean regions are separated into separate
zones: intertidal, Pelagic, Abyssal, and Benthic.
All four zones have a great diversity of species.
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The intertidal zone is where the ocean meets the
land — sometimes it is submerged and at other
times exposed, as waves and tides come in and
out.
The pelagic zone includes those waters further
from the land, basically the open ocean.
The pelagic zone is generally cold though it is
hard to give a general temperature range since,
just like ponds and lakes
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The benthic zone is the area below the pelagic
zone, but does not include the very deepest
parts of the ocean
The bottom of the zone consists of sand, slit,
and/or dead organisms.
The deep ocean is the abyssal zone. The water
in this region is very cold (around 3° C), highly
pressured, high in oxygen content, but low in
nutritional content.
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TUNDRA BIOME
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Distribution
• The tundra is the simplest biome in terms of
species composition and food chains.
• The tundra biome is restricted to the high
latitudes of the northern hemisphere in a
belt around the Arctic Ocean.
• Tundra is found in area with low
temperature throughout most of the year.
• Other condition in tundra are low rainfall,
seasonal highlight and short day length.
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Characteristics of tundra include:
• Extremely cold climate
• Low biotic diversity
• Simple vegetation structure
• Short season of growth and reproduction
• Energy and nutrients in the form of dead
organic material
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• Tundra is separated into two types:
• Arctic tundra
• Alpine tundra
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Biomes of the World
1. The Tundra
2. Low biotic diversity
Alpine vs Arctic tundra
1. Extremely cold climate
3. Simple vegetation structure
4. Permafrost
5. Short growing season
6. Energy and nutrients in the form
of dead organic material
7. Large population oscillations
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Arctic tundra
• Arctic tundra is located in the northern
hemisphere, encircling the north pole and
extending south to the coniferous forests of the
taiga.
• The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.
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• There are no deep root systems in the
vegetation of the arctic tundra, however, there
are still a wide variety of plants that are able
to resist the cold climate.
• There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the
arctic and subarctic, and these include:
• Low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses,
liverworts, and grasses
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• Animals are adapted to handle long, cold
winters and to breed and raise young quickly
in the summer.
• Animals such as mammals and birds also
have additional insulation from fat.
• Many animals hibernate during the winter
because food is not abundant.
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Alpine tundra
• Alpine tundra is located on mountains
throughout the world at high altitude where
trees cannot grow.
• The growing season is approximately 180
days.
• The nighttime temperature is usually below
freezing. Unlike the arctic tundra, the soil in
the alpine is well drained.
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• The plants are very similar to those of the arctic
ones and include:
• tussock grasses, dwarf trees, small-leafed shrubs,
and heaths
• Animals living in the alpine tundra are also well
adapted:
• Mammals: Pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep,
elk
• Birds: grouselike birds
• Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies
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Productivity of tundra
• Productivity in tundra is low
• This is because tundra has frozen permafrost
and soil that limits productivity.
• Low temperature as ice,aslo limits productivity
.
• Short day length year-round also leads to low
productivity although productivity can be
higher for short periods in the summer
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Distribution
• Desert is found in areas of very low rainfall,
strong sunlight and temperature that vary
from very hot in the daytime to cold at
night.
• Most deserts have a considerable amount of
specialized vegetation, as well as specialized
vertebrate and invertebrate animals
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• Desert biomes can be classified according to
several characteristics.
There are four major types of deserts:
• Hot and dry Desert
• Semiarid Desert
• Coastal Desert
• Cold Desert
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Hot and dry desert
• Hot and dry desert present in North American
countries.
• The seasons are generally warm throughout the
year and very hot in the summer.
• The winters usually bring little rainfall.
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• Desert surfaces receive a little more than twice
the solar radiation received by humid regions .
• The animals include small nocturnal (active at
night) carnivores.
• The dominant animals are burrowers and
kangaroo rats. There are also insects, arachnids,
reptiles and birds.
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Semiarid Desert
• The major deserts of this type include the
• Sagebrush of Utah,
• Montana and Great Basin.
• They also include the North America,
Newfoundland, Greenland, Russia, Europe and
northern Asia.
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Coastal desert
• These deserts occur in moderately cool to
warm areas is the coastal desert.
A good example is the Atacama of Chile.
• The soil is fine-textured with a moderate salt
content.
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Salt bush Buckwheat bush
Little leaf horse brush
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Cold desert
• These deserts are characterized by cold winters
with snowfall and high overall rainfall
throughout the winter and occasionally over the
summer.
• They occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the
Nearctic realm. They have short, moist, and
moderately warm summers with fairly long,
cold winters.
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The 10 largest deserts
Rank Desert Area (km²) Area (mi²)
1
Antarctic Desert
(Antarctica)
13,829,430 5,339,573
2 Arctic 13,700,000+ 5,300,000+
3 Sahara (Africa) 9,100,000+ 3,320,000+
4
Arabian Desert (Middle
East)
2,330,000 900,000
5 Gobi Desert (Asia) 1,300,000 500,000
6 Kalahari Desert (Africa) 900,000 360,000
7
Patagonian Desert
(South America)
670,000 260,000
8
Great Victoria Desert
(Australia)
647,000 250,000
9
Syrian Desert (Middle
East)
520,000 200,000
10
Great Basin Desert
(North America)
492,000 190,000
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The Atacama desert is, according to NASA, National Geographic and many other
publications, the driest desert in the world
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• The heaviest rainfall of the spring is usually in
April or May. In some areas, rainfall can be
heavy in autumn.
• The burrowing habit also applies to carnivores
like the badger, kit fox, and coyote.
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Biomes of the World
5. Grasslands
1. Composed of a rich mix of
grasses and forbs and some of
the world's most fertile soils
2. Summers tend to be dry
3. Most precipitation falls at start of
growing season
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Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Biotic
1. Food – both quantity and
quality of food are
important.
2. Predators – refer back to
predator prey
relationships.
3. Competitors – other
organisms may require the
same resources from an
environment.
4. Parasites – may cause
disease and slow down the
growth of an organism.
Abiotic
1. Temperature – higher
temperatures speed up
enzyme-catalyzed
reactions and increase
growth.
2. Oxygen Availability – affect
the rate of energy
production by respiration.
3. Light Availability – for
photosynthesis and
breeding cycles in animals
and plants.
4. Toxins and pollutants –
tissue growth may be
reduced.
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2.2 Measuring Abiotic Components of
the System
2.3 Measuring Biotic
Components of the System
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Setting up stage quadrats of 100m2 in the
meadow area of the ecological gradient
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Setting up group quadrats of 1m2
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Setting up sampling quadrats of 0.1m2 in
the meadow
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Using the light meter in the forest group
quadrat of 1m2
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Soil Temperature
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Taking a soil sample with a soil borer
(auger) in the forest section of the
gradient
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Results of soil borer sample,
Chemical analysis of the soil can be seen
in the background
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Testing the meadow area for pH,
phosphates, nitrates and potassium
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Collecting samples in Ziploc bags for
analysis back in the lab
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Taking observations in the forest
Notice the absence of plant growth on the
forest floor
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Chemical testing in the forest
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Insect sampling with net in the meadow
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Setting up 0.1m2 sampling quadrats for
biomass analysis
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Next Chapter…..
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2.5.1-Explain the role of producers,
consumers and decomposers in the
ecosystem.
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• ENERGY FLOW THROUGH
• PRODUCERS
• CONSUMERS
• DECOMPOSERS
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Energy Flow through Producers
• Producers convert light energy into chemical
energy of organic molecules
• Energy lost as cell respiration in producers
then as heat elsewhere
• When consumers eat producers energy passes
on to them
• In death organic matter passes to saprophytes
& detritivores
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Energy Flow through Consumers
• Obtain energy by eating producers or other
consumers
• Energy transfer never above 20% efficient,
usually between 10 – 20%
• Food ingested has multiple fates
1. Large portion used in cell respiration for meeting
energy requirements (LOSS)
2. Smaller portion is assimilated used for growth,
repair, reproduction
3. Smallest portion, undigested material excreted as
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Figure 54.10 Energy partitioning within a link of the food chain
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Energy flow through Decomposers
• Some food is not digested by consumers so
lost as feces to detritivores & saprophytes
• Energy eventually released by process of cell
respiration or lost as heat
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Chapter : 2.5.2
• Topic : Describe photosynthesis and
respiration in terms of inputs, outputs and
energy transformations
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Figure 10.1 Photoautotrophs
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What is Photosynthesis?
• Conversion by plants of light energy into chemical
energy, which is then used to support the plants'
biological processes.
• Process by which cells containing chlorophyll in
green plants convert incident light to chemical energy
and synthesize organic compounds from inorganic
compounds, especially carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide and water, accompanied by the simultaneous
release of oxygen
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Photosynthesis
• Inputs – sunlight, carbon dioxide, water
• Outputs – sugars, oxygen
• Transformations – radiant energy into chemical
energy, inorganic carbon into organic carbon
Inputs, Output & Transformation
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What is Respiration ?
• The process by which oxygen is taken in and
used by tissues in the body and carbon dioxide
is released.
• The energy producing process of breathing, by
which an organism supplies its cells with
oxygen and relieves itself of carbon dioxide.
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Figure 10.2 Focusing in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant
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What is ATP
• ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, which
is a compound that a cell uses to store energy.
• ATP plays a role in making the proper
conversion so the plant can use the energy.
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Energy Processes
• Photosynthesis (Green Plants)
sunlight +water + carbon dioxide  oxygen + sugars(Glucose)
• Respiration (All living things)
oxygen + sugars  ATP +water + carbon dioxide
• ATP is molecular energy storage
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Respiration
• Inputs - sugars, oxygen
• Outputs - carbon dioxide, water
• Transformations – chemical energy in carbon
compounds into chemical energy as ATP,
organic carbon compounds into inorganic
carbon compounds
Inputs, Output & Transformation
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• The fundamental energy source for most of the
environment is the sun.
• Photoautotrophs capture the sun’s energy and use it to
make organic compounds through photosynthesis.
• Photoautotrophs are often also called primary
producers because they establish the basis for most
other production; they create organic material from
inorganic, or non-living, sources.
• The process of photosynthesis transforms carbon
dioxide and water into simple carbohydrates.
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RECAP
• What is photosynthesis?
• What is RESPIRATION?
• Output of Photosynthesis
• Output of Respiration
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Self Assessment Question
• Explain two difference between producers
and consumers
• Outline in three points of transfer and
transformation of energy as its flows in an
ecosystem
• What are the transfer and transformation in
named cycle which you have studied
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• 2.5.3 Describe and explain the transfer
and transformation of energy as it flows
through an ecosystem.
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What are transfer process
• A transfer is a process where there is a
change in location within the system, but
there is no change in state.
Example:
• Water is falling from clouds to the ground as
rain.
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CLOUDS
IN THE FORM
OF
WATER
OCEAN
CHANGE IN LOCATION
STATE
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What are transformation process?
• Transformation are process that leads to the
formation of new products or change in
state
Example:
• Evaporation of water from a lake into the
atmosphere
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• Transfer are process that lead to a change in
location but not a change in state
• Transformation are process that leads to the
formation of new products or c change in
state
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TRANSFER IN PRODUCERS
• The flow of energy into producers
• A lot of the sunlight is not absorbed by the
producers because it is the wrong wavelength
• Other energy is not absorbed because it is used
to evaporate water to is reflected off the
producers.
• Other sunlight energy does not hit chloroplasts
and so is transmitted through the leaf
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
454

TRANSFORMATION IN PRODUCERS
• The producers transform sunlight energy
into chemical energy as biomass
• Little of the available sunlight energy is
converted into new biomass because
producers are inefficient at converting
sunlight energy into stored chemical energy
through the photosynthesis
• Only 1 % of the sunlight reaching the
producers is turned into new biomass
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
455

TRANSFER IN CONSUMERS
• Consumers eat producers and then further
on in the food chain, consumers eat
consumers
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
456

TRANSFORAMTION IN CONSUMERS
• In a food chain there is loss of chemical
energy from on one trophic level to another
through respiration and heat loss
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
457

• Only a very small part of the light from the
sun that does reach green plants is
eventually converted to plant biomass.
Reasons
• Reflection
• Wavelength
• Efficiency
• Not absorbed
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
459

• Reflection: Some light is reflected from the
surface of leaves or passes through them
without being captured
• Wavelengths: Chlorophyll only captures
certain wavelength of light for use
photosynthesis
• For example, green light is reflected and not
absorbed. Red and blue wavelengths are the
most effective for photosynthesis
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
460

• Efficiency :Photosynthesis has built
inefficiencies and is limited by factors such
as temperature and carbon di oxide.
• Not absorbed: Even light which does enter
leaves and not strike the chloroplast
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
461

• 2.5.4 Describe and explain the transfer and
transformation of materials as they cycle
within an ecosystem
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
462

• The cyclic transformation of chemicals through
interacting biological, geological and chemical
processes.
• Natural processes that recycle nutrients in
various chemical forms from the environment,
to organisms, and then back to the environment
• Ex: Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
hydrologic cycles.
What is Biogeochemical cycle?
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
463

• The biogeochemical cycles of all elements
used by life have both an organic and an
inorganic phase.
• This cycling involves the decomposition of
organic matter back into inorganic nutrients
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
464

What is Carbon Cycle?
• The process by which carbon is taken up by
plants and animals and returned to the
environment in a continuous cycle.
• The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle
by which carbon is exchanged among the
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the Earth.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
466

Carbon is stored on our planet in the following
major sinks
1. As organic molecules in living and dead
organisms found in the biosphere;
2. As the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere;
3. As organic matter in soils;
4. In the lithosphere as fossil fuels and
sedimentary rock deposits such as limestone,
5. In the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon
dioxide and as calcium carbonate shells in
marine organisms.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
468

Transfers in the carbon cycle
• One example of a transfer process in the
carbon cycle is a herbivore feeding on a
producer.
• Another example is a carnivore feeding on a
herbivore.
• Further examples of transfer processes in the
carbon cycle are decomposers feeding on dead
organic matter, and carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere dissolving in rainwater and
oceans.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
472

• Biomineralization the change of carbon
dioxide into calcium carbonate in shellﬁsh
and coral
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
475

Transformations in the carbon cycle
• Photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide
and water into glucose using sunlight
energy trapped by chlorophyll.
• The process of respiration converts organic
storage into inorganic matter in the carbon
cycle.
• Respiration transforms organic matter such
as glucose into carbon dioxide and water.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
476

• Another transformation processes in the
carbon cycle is combustion.
• Combustion transforms biomass into carbon
dioxide and water.
• Biomineralization is also a transformation
process.
• Biomineralization transforms carbon dioxide
into calcium carbonate in shellﬁsh and coral.
• The creation of fossil fuels is also a
transformation process.
• Fossil fuels are made from the sedimentation of
organic matter, incomplete decay, and pressure.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
477

CARBON CYCLE
Transfers
• Feeding on plants
material by herbivores
• Feeding on herbivores by
carnivores
• Feeding on dead
organism by
decomposers
• Co2 from atmosphere
dissolves in rainwater
• Co2 from atmosphere
dissolves in oceans
Transformation
• Photosynthesis(co2 into
glucose)
• Respiration(organic
matter into co2)
• Combustion-Organic
matter in to co2
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
478

What is Nitrogen cycle ?
• A process in which atmospheric nitrogen enters
the soil and becomes part of living organisms,
and then returns to the atmosphere.
• Cyclic movement of nitrogen in different
chemical forms from the environment, to
organisms, and then back to the environment.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
480

• Earth's atmosphere is approximately 78-80%
nitrogen making it the largest pool of nitrogen.
• Most plants can only take up nitrogen in two
solid forms: ammonium ion and the nitrate
ion .
• Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as
inorganic nitrate from the soil solution.
• Animals receive the required nitrogen they
need for metabolism, growth, and
reproduction
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
482

3 PROCESS OF NITROGEN IN THE
EARTH
• Nitrogen fixation----nitorgen+O2+CO2+H2
• Nitrification---- conversion of ammonia to nitrate
• Denitrification-- nitrate becomes molecular(GAS)
nitrogen with the help of Bacteria
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
483

NITROGEN CYCLE PROCESS
Nitrogen fixing
• Nitrogen from atmosphere converted into
ammonium ions
Nitrifying
• Ammonium ions converted into nitrite and then
nitrate
Denitrifying
• Nitrates converted into nitrogen
Decomposers
• Break down organic nitrogen into ammonia-
DEAMINATION
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
484

NITROGEN CYCLE PROCESS
Nitrogen fixing
• Nitrogen from atmosphere converted into
ammonium ions
Nitrifying
• Ammonium ions converted into nitrite and ten
nitrate
Denitrifying
• Nitrates converted into nitrogen
Decomposers
• Break down organic nitrogen into ammonia-
DEAMINATION
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
485

NITROGEN CYCLE
Transfers
• Feeding on herbivores
by carnivores
• Feeding on dead
organism by
decomposers
• Absorption of nitrates
by plants
Transformation
• Nitrogen fixation
• Nitrification
• Denitrification
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
486

Ammonium Nitrate
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrite bacteria (present in the soil)
Nitrate bacteria
Nitrate
Directly-
Bacteria present
in plant roots
starts active on
lightening
Convert into
gas with help
of bacteria
Nitrogen
fixation
Denitrification
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
487

What is Symbiotic bacteria
• Symbiotic bacteria are bacteria living
in symbiosis with another organism
or each other.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
489

actinomycetes
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
495

cyanobacteria
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
496

• The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into
compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies .
This is known as nitrogen fixation
• Some fixation occurs in lightning strikes, but most
fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria.
• These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that
combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce
ammonia.
What is Nitrogen fixation?
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
497

What is Nitrification?
• The conversion of ammonia (NH3) to nitrate
(NO3-) is called NITRIFICATION
•
• Nitrification is an important step in the nitrogen
cycle in soil
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
500

What is Denitrification?
• The process by which a nitrate becomes
molecular nitrogen, especially by the action of
bacteria.
• The process by which nitrogen, is converted to
a gaseous form and lost from the soil or water
column.
• The reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen
gas is called denitrification
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
502

Nitrate
Nitrogen dioxide
Ammonium ions
Nitrogen
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
504

NITROGEN CYCLE
Transfers
• Feeding on herbivores
by carnivores
• Feeding on dead
organism by
decomposers
• Absorption of nitrates
by plants
Transformation
• Nitrogen fixation
• Nitrification
• Denitrification
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
505

Transfers in the nitrogen cycle
• One example of a transfer process in the
nitrogen cycle is a herbivore feeding on a
producer.
• Another example is a carnivore feeding on a
herbivore.
• Further examples of transfer processes in
the nitrogen cycle are decomposers feeding
on dead organic matter, and plants
absorbing nitrates through their roots.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
506

Transformations in the nitrogen cycle
• The transformation processes in the nitrogen
cycle involve four different types of bacteria.
• Nitrogen-ﬁxing bacteria transform nitrogen gas
in the atmosphere into ammonium ions.
• Nitrifying bacteria transform ammonium ions
into nitrite and then nitrate.
• Denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into
nitrogen.
• Decomposers break down organic nitrogen
into ammonia. The breakdown of organic
nitrogen into ammonia is called deamination.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
507

• Producers convert inorganic materials into
organic matter in the nitrogen cycle.
• Producers use nitrogen from nitrates to
make amino acids and then protein.
• Decomposers convert organic storage into
inorganic matter in the nitrogen cycle.
• Decomposers transform protein and amino
acids into ammonium ions.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
508

• The cycle of water movement from the atmosphere to the earth
and back to the atmosphere through condensation, precipitation,
evaporation, and transpiration is called WATER CYCLE
• The continual cycle of water between the land, the ocean and
the atmosphere.
• The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes
the continuous movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the Earth.
What is Water Cycle ?
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
510

• The four stages in this process are:
Evaporation
Condensation
Precipitation
Collection
.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
512

Evaporation
• This is the first stage of the water cycle.
• The Sun's rays heat the water on the surface of
the earth in rivers, oceans and lakes.
• This makes the water change into water vapour.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
514

Condensation :
After evaporation, condensation occurs.
 Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes
back into liquid, forming clouds
 The process that causes these changes is called
condensation.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
516

• Precipitation :
Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that
the air cannot hold it anymore. The clouds get heavy and
water falls back to the earth in the form of rain
• Collection
After precipitation comes the stage of collection. The
raindrops fall back into the lakes, rivers and oceans or are
absorbed by the land. This process by which rainwater
gathers on earth is called collection.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
517

WATER CYCLE
Transfers
• Precipitation
• Runoff
• Absorption by plants
Transformation
• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Condensation
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
518

Transfers in the water cycle
• Precipitation is a transfer process where
water falls from clouds to the ground as
rain.
• Run-off is a transfer process where water
ﬂows overland into rivers, lakes, and seas.
Another transfer process in the water cycle
is the absorption of water by plants through
their roots.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
520

Transformations in the water cycle
• Evaporation is a transformation process
where water moves from the land, rivers,
and oceans into the atmosphere.
• Condensation is a transformation process
where water condenses from the
atmosphere into clouds.
• Transpiration is a transformation process
where water moves from leaves into the
atmosphere.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
521

2.5.5-- Define the terms gross productivity, net
productivity, primary productivity and
secondary productivity.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
522

• Gross productivity (GP)
• Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
• Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP)
• Net productivity
• Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
• Net Secondary Productivity (NSP)
• Primary productivity
• Secondary productivity
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
523

2.5.5-.7 Productivity
http://www.nature.com/scitab
le/knowledge/library/second
ary-production-13234142
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
524

Gross Productivity
• A definition of gross productivity is the
total gain in biomass in a specific area in
a specific amount of time, which could be
through photosynthesis in primary
producers or absorption in consumers.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
525

Gaining energy
Gaining biomass
With the help of photosynthesis
Per unit area or time
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
526

Net Productivity
• A deﬁnition of net productivity is the
gain in energy or biomass per unit area
per unit time remaining after the
respiratory losses
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
527

What is Net Productivity ?
Energy remaining after respiratory losses
Respiratory losses
Biomass remaining after respiratory losses
Net
Productivity
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
528

Primary Productivity
• Primary productivity is the gain by
producers in energy or biomass per unit
area per unit time
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
529

• Primary productivity is usually expressed in units of
energy (e.g., joules m -2 day -1) or in units of dry organic
matter (e.g., kg m -2 year -1).
Amount of energy or biomass
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
530

What is Heterotrophic?
• An organism that cannot synthesize its own
food and is dependent on complex organic
substances for nutrition.
• Most bacteria and all animal,human and fungal
species are heterotrophic.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
531

What is Secondary Productivity ?
Gaining biomass & absorption
Measuring
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
532

SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY (SP)
• Biomass gained by
heterotrophic
organisms through
feeding and
absorption.
• Not all food eaten is
absorbed (assimilated)
into an animals body.
• Unassimilated food =
feces or droppings
SP = food eaten – fecal lossGuru Ecosystem IB
ESS
533

Secondary Productivity
• A definition of secondary productivity is the
biomass gained by consumers through
feeding and absorption. Secondary
productivity is measured in units of mass in
a specific area in a specific amount of time.
•
• All definitions of productivity could also use
energy as a measure of productivity, as well
as biomass.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
534

• 2.5.6 Define the terms and calculate the
values of both gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP)
from given
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
535

Gaining energy
Gaining biomass
How much energy?
What is Gross Productivity?
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
536

Gross primary productivity
• Gross primary productivity can be
deﬁned as the total gain in energy or
biomass per unit area per time fixed by
photosynthesis in green plants.
.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
537

Gross Productivity
Gross productivity is the total gain energy per unit time in
plants.
It is the biomass that could be gained by an organism
before any deduction.
But all organism have to respire to stay alive so some of
this energy is used up in staying alive instead of being
used to grow
Photosynthesis 2.2%
Reflection 3.0
Evaporation
(including transpiration and
heating of the surroundings
94.8
Total 100.0%Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
539

• Energy enters an ecosystem through
sunlight.(100%)
• Only 2% of the light energy falling on a
tree is captured and turned into chemical
energy (glucose) by photosynthesis.
• The rest is reflected, or just warms up the
tree as it is absorbed.
Gross Productivity (GP)
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
540

Gaining energy
Gaining biomass
What is Gross Secondary Productivity ?
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
541

GSP=FOOD EATEN –FAECAL LOSS
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
542

Gross Productivity on the Earth
• Generally greatest productivity
– In shallow waters near continents
– Along coral reefs – abundant light, heat, nutrients
– Where upwelling currents bring nitrogen & phosphorous to the
surface
• Generally lowest
– In deserts & arid regions with lack of water but high
temperatures
– Open ocean lacking nutrients and sun only near the surface
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
543

Net primary productivity
• Net primary productivity is the gain by
producers in energy or biomass per
unit area per time after allowing for
respiratory losses
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
544

What is Net Primary Productivity ?
After Respiratory losses
Gaining energy
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
545

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
• The quantity of biomass potentially
available to consumers in an ecosystem.
• It is measured in unit of mass or energy per
unit area per unit time.
NPP = GP – respiration
(for both producers and consumers)
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
547

Net Primary Productivity on Earth
• Most NPP
– Estuaries, swamps, tropical rainforests
• Least NPP
– Open ocean, tundra, desert
• Open ocean has low NPP but its large area
gives it more NPP total than anywhere else
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
549

Ecosystem Type
Net Primary Productivity
(kilocalories/meter -2 /year)
Tropical Rain Forest 9000
Estuary 9000
Swamps and Marshes 9000
Savanna 3000
Deciduous Temperate Forest 6000
Boreal Forest 3500
Temperate Grassland 2000
Polar Tundra 600
Desert < 200
Average annual Net Primary Productivity of the Earth's major biomes.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
550

• Gross primary productivity
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
551

How to Calculate GPP &NPP
• Calculate the values of both gross primary
• Productivity (GPP) and net primary
• Productivity (NPP) from given data.
NPP = GPP – R
where R = respiratory loss
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
552

How to Calculate GSP &NSP
• Calculate the values of both gross secondary
• Productivity (GSP) and net secondary
• Productivity (NSP) from given data.
• NSP = GSP – R
• GSP = food eaten – fecal loss
• where R = respiratory loss
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
553

What is Dissolved Oxygen?
• Dissolved Oxygen is the amount of gaseous
oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water.
• Oxygen enters the water by direct
absorption from the atmosphere, by rapid
movement, or as a waste product of plant
photosynthesis.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
554

• How to calculate gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP)
• The easiest way to measure gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity
(NPP) is by using aquatic plants.
• To calculate GPP and NPP, measurements of
photosynthesis and respiration need to be
taken.
• Measuring dissolved oxygen will therefore give
a measurement of the amounts of
photosynthesis and respiration in aquatic
plants.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
555

• Net primary productivity can be calculated
by measuring the increase in dissolved
oxygen when aquatic plants are put in the
light.
• In the light, both photosynthesis and
respiration will be occurring but
photosynthesis will be the bigger process,
and therefore it produces more oxygen than
the plant uses in respiration
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
556

• Gross primary productivity can be
calculated using the equation:
• NPP = GPP − R, where R = respiratory loss.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
557

• Respiration can be calculated by measuring
the decrease in dissolved oxygen when
aquatic plants are put in the dark.
• In the dark, only respiration will occur and
not photosynthesis.
• The equation can be rearranged to calculate
GPP:
• GPP = NPP + R
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
558

Example of how to calculate GPP and NPP from
given data
• Productivity was measured using an aquatic
plant.
• The plant was put in light and dark conditions.
• Dissolved oxygen was measured before and
after the plant was put in light and dark
conditions.
• In this experiment gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP) were
measured by using changes in dissolved oxygen
in milligrams of oxygen per litre per hour. The
results were:
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
561

Calculating NPP
• Plant in the light:
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the start of the
experiment = 10 mg of oxygen per litre
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the end of the
• Increase in dissolved oxygen = 2 mg of oxygen
per litre
• The increase in dissolved oxygen is a measure
of NPP.
• The experiment lasted one hour and so the NPP
= 2 mg of oxygen per litre per hour.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
562

Calculating GPP
• Plant in the dark:
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the start of the
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the end of the
• Loss of dissolved oxygen = 3 mg of oxygen per
litre per hour.
• The loss of dissolved oxygen is a measure of
respiration (R).
• NPP = GPP − R, so GPP = NPP + R
• Therefore GPP = 2 + 3 = 5 mg of oxygen per
litre per hour.
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
563

• 2.5.7 Deﬁne the terms and calculate the
values of both gross secondary productivity
(GSP) and net secondary productivity (NSP)
from given data
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
564

• Gross secondary productivity
• Gross secondary productivity can be defined as
the total gain by consumers in biomass through
absorption.
• Gross secondary productivity is measured in units
of mass in a specific area in a specific amount of
time.
• Gross secondary productivity = food eaten – faecal
loss
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
565

Net secondary productivity
• Net secondary productivity can be deﬁned
as the gain by consumers in energy or
biomass per unit area per time after the
respiratory losses
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
566

After Respiratory losses
Gaining energy
Available energy goes to consumers
What is Net Secondary Productivity ?
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
567

NOT REQUIRED-------Different methods of Measuring
Primary Production
1. Measuring the aspects of photosynthesis
2. In marine we can use closed container measure O2
production, CO2 uptake over time
3. Must measure starting amount in environment then
amount added by producers
4. Use dissolved oxygen probe or carbon dioxide
sensor
5. Measure indirectly as biomass of plant material
produced over time (only accurate over long timer
periods)  this gives NPP
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
569

May 2012
• How to Measure Aquatic Primary Production
using the Light and Dark Bottle Method
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
570

TRANSPARENT BOTTLE(LIGHT BOTTLE)
OPAQUE BOTTLE(DARK BOTTLE)
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
571

Light and Dark Bottle Method – for
Aquatic Primary Production
• Changes in dissolved oxygen used to measure
GPP and NPP
• Measures respiration and photosynthesis
• Measure oxygen change in light and opaque
bottles
• Incubation period should range from 30
minutes to 24 hours
• Use B.O.D. bottles
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
572

• Take two sets of samples measure the initial
oxygen content in each (I)
• Light (L) and Dark (D) bottles are incubated in
sunlight for desired time period
• NPP = L – I
• GPP = L – D
• R = D – I
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
573

Sample Data
1. Write the equation for and calculate the GPP
2.Write the equation for and calculate the NPP
3. Write the equation for and calculate the Respiration
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
574

Evaluation
• Tough in unproductive waters or for short
incubation times
• Accuracy in these cases can be increased by
using radioactive isotopes C14 of carbon
Guru Ecosystem IB
ESS
575

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Topic 2 -The Ecosystem Powerpoint

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