Pearson/ATI Introduction to How to Grade for Learning

© Ken O’Connor, 2013
How to Grade for Learning by
Using 15 Fixes for Broken Grades
Presented by
Ken O’Connor
Assess for Success Consulting
kenoc@aol.com
www.oconnorgrading.com
1

Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Why Grade?
3. Perspectives on Grading
4. Grading Practices and Issues
5. Fixes for Broken Grades
6. Summary and Reflections
2

“Terms (are) frequently used
interchangeably, although
they (should) have distinct
meanings.”
McTighe, J., and Ferrara, S., “Assessing Learning in the Classroom”,
Journal of Quality Learning, December 1995, 11
3

What Do These Terms Mean?
the number (or letter) reported at the
end of a period of time as a summary
statement of student performance
GRADE(S) (grading)
the number (or letter) "score" given to
any student test or performance
MARK(S)/SCORE(S) (marking/scoring)
7/ 4
10 3
2
1
A 91 4 E
B 78 3 G
C 64 2 S
D 57 1 N
F 42
4

The Essential Question
How confident are you that the grades
students get in your school are:
• accurate
• consistent
• meaningful, and
• supportive of learning?
If grades do not meet these four
conditions of quality they are
“broken,” i.e., ineffective.
5

Policy
+
Principles
+
Practicality
=
Implementation 6

“ . . . (grading) practices are not the result
of careful thought or sound evidence, . . .
rather, they are used because teachers
experienced these practices as students
and, having little training or experience
with other options, continue their use.”
Guskey, Thomas R. (Editor), Communicating Student Learning:
The 1996 ASCD Yearbook, ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1996, 20
7

“Fair does not mean equal;
yet, when it comes to grading,
we insist that it does.”
Patterson, William “Breaking Out of Our Boxes,” Kappan,
April 2003, 572
Underpinning Issue #1: FAIRNESS
8

Underpinning Issue #1: FAIRNESS
What does FAIR mean ?
“All students are given an equal opportunity to
demonstrate what they know and can do as part of
the assessment process.
Adaptations to assessment materials and procedures
are available for students including
but not restricted to
students with learning disabilities, to allow them to
demonstrate their knowledge and skills, provided that
the adaptations do not jeopardize the integrity or
content of the assessment.”
Adapted from Manitoba Education and Training at
http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/metks4/curricul/assess/aepolprod/purpos~2.html
9

Underpinning Issue #2: MOTIVATION
“Drive”
by Daniel Pink
Motivation 1.0 - the ancient drive to survive
Motivation 2.0 - rewarding good work with
pay, benefits and promotions
- centres on "Type X behaviour”
where people are motivated mostly by external
rewards.
10

Pink believes it is time for a "full scale upgrade" to
Motivation 3.0 - intrinsic rewards that play to the
intrinsic satisfaction of the activity.
Motivation 3.0 is based on what Pink calls "Type I
behavior," where the main motivators are the
freedom to do what you want, the opportunity to
take a challenge and fulfillment by the purpose of
the undertaking.
Source- review by Richard Eisenberg in USA Today, January 25, 2010
11

“All kids start out as curious self-directed Type I’s.
But many of them end up as disengaged, compliant
Type X’s. . . .
If we want to equip young people for the new world
of work - and more important, if we want them to
lead satisfying lives - we need to break Motivation
2.0’s grip on education and parenting. . . .
Unfortunately, as with business, there is a mismatch
between what science knows and what schools do. . .
We’re bribing students into compliance instead of
challenging them into engagement.”
Daniel Pink, 2009, Drive, Riverhead Books, New York, 174
12

According to Pink the keys to Motivation 3.0 are
Autonomy
Mastery
Purpose
13

Underpinning Issue #3: OBJECTIVITY AND
PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT
Traditional view
Objective good!
Subjective bad!!
Strive to be objective!
14

Underpinning Issue #3: OBJECTIVITY AND PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT
“All scoring by human judges, including
assigning points and taking them off math
homework is subjective. The question is not
whether it is subjective, but whether it is
defensible and credible. The AP and IB programs
(are) credible and defensible, yet subjective. I
wish we could stop using that word as a
pejorative! So-called objective scoring is still
subjective test writing.”
Grant Wiggins, January 19, 2000 answering a question on
chatserver.ascd.org 15

Professional Judgment
“decisions made by educators, in light of
experience, and with reference to shared
public standards and established policies
and guidelines.”
Cooper, D. Redefining Fair. Solution Tree. 2011. 3
16

Why Standards-Based Grading and Reporting?
1. Mandate, (especially in Oregon!)
2. Supports learning
3. Improves communication
4. Consistency/Fairness
17

Purposes for Grading
• Communicate the achievement status of
students to parents, (students), and others.
• Provide information that students can use
for self-evaluation.
• Select, identify, or group students for certain
educational paths or programs.
• Provide incentives to learn.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of instructional
programs
The 1996 ASCD Yearbook, ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1996, 17 18

“the primary purpose of . . . grades . . . (is) to
communicate student achievement
to students, parents, school administrators, post-
secondary institutions and employers.”
Bailey, J. and McTighe, J., “Reporting Achievement at the Secondary School
Level: What and How?”, in Thomas R. Guskey, (Ed.) Communicating Student
Learning: ASCD Yearbook 1996, ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1996, 120
19

Perspectives on Grading
ding is not essential for learning
ding is complicated
ding is subjective/emotional
ding is inescapable
re is not much “pure”research
grading practices
single best grading practice but an
rging consensus
lty grading damages students -
teachers
20

Grading Issues
• Achievement (only)
• Evidence (quality)
• Calculation
• Learning (support)
21

Grades are broken when they -
• include ingredients that distort achievement
• arise from low quality or poorly organized evidence
• are derived from inappropriate number crunching,
and when they
• do not support the learning process.
22

Fixes for ingredients that distort achievement
1. Don’t include student behaviors (effort, participation, adherence
to class rules, etc) in grades; include only achievement.
2. Don’t reduce marks on ‘work’ submitted late; provide support for
the learner.
3. Don’t give points for extra credit or use bonus points;
seek only evidence that more work has resulted in a higher level of
achievement.
4. Don’t punish academic dishonesty with reduced grades;
apply other consequences and reassess to determine actual level of
achievement.
5. Don’t consider attendance in grade determination; report
absences separately.
6. Don’t include group scores in grades; use only individual
achievement evidence.
23

Fixes for low quality or poorly organized evidence
7. Don’t organize information in grading records by
assessment methods or simply summarize into a single
grade; organize and report evidence by standards/
learning goals.
8. Don’t assign grades using inappropriate or unclear
performance standards; provide clear descriptions of
achievement expectations.
9. Don’t assign grades based on student’s achievement
compared to other students; compare each student’s
performance to preset standards.
10. Don’t rely on evidence gathered from assessments that
fail to meet standards of quality; rely only on quality
assessments. 24

Fixes for inappropriate number crunching
11. Don’t rely on the mean; consider other
measures of central tendency and use professional
judgment.
12. Don’t include zeros in grade determination
when evidence is missing or as punishment; use
alternatives, such as reassessing to determine real
achievement or use “I” for Incomplete or
Insufficient evidence.
25

Fixes to support the learning process
13. Don’t use information from formative
assessments and practice to determine grades; use
only summative evidence.
14. Don’t summarize evidence accumulated over
time when learning is developmental and will
grow with time and repeated opportunities; in
those instances emphasize more recent
achievement.
15. Don’t leave students out of the grading
process. Involve students - they can - and should -
play key roles in assessment and grading that
promote achievement. 26

For each Fix
•What do you think? - PMI
• Where are you/school/district now?
• Where do you want to go - you/school
/district?
• What could you do to assist
in the implementation of this fix in
your school/district?
27

Fix #1
Don’t include student behavior (effort,
participation, adherence to class rules,
etc) in grades; include only
achievement.
28

Fix #1
“. . . grades often reflect a combination of
achievement, progress, and other factors.
. . . this tendency to collapse several independent
elements into a single grade may blur their
meaning.”
Bailey, J. and McTighe, J., “Reporting Achievement at the Secondary School
Level: What and How?”, in T. R. Guskey, (Ed.) Communicating Student
Learning: ASCD Yearbook 1996, ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1996, 121 29

O’Connor, K. How to Grade for Learning. Third Edition. Corwin. 2009, 40
31
Fix #1

223Fix #1
32O’Connor, K. A Repair Kit for Grading. Pearson, Boston, MA, 2011. 19

33
Fix #1
RESPONSIBILITY
WORKS INDEPENDENTLY
INITIATIVE
ORGANIZATION
COLLABORATION
SELF-REGULATION

Fix #2
Don’t reduce marks on “work”
submitted late; provide support for
the learner.
34

“Warm demanders first establish a caring
relationship that convinces students that the
teacher believes in them and has their best
interests at heart. . . .
On the basis of this relationship, warm
demanders relentlessly insist that all students
perform required academic work and treat
the teacher and their peers with respect.”
Abstract of Bondy, E, and D. D. Ross. "The Teacher as Warm Demander,"
Educational Leadership, September 2008.
Available on line at www.ascd.org/
35
Fix #2

Dealing with Late Work
1. Support not penalties
2. Behaviors/Learning Skills
3. Clarity/Communication
4. Consequences
Fix #2
36

Fix #3
Don’t give points for extra credit or
use bonus points; seek only evidence
that more work has resulted in a
higher level of achievement.
37

Letter to the Editor - Harrisburg, PA Patriot News
November 21, 2003
Recently it was “Dress like an Egyptian Day”
at my school. If we dressed like an Egyptian
we got extra credit. When we didn’t (which
the majority of the kids didn’t) our teacher
got disappointed at us because we just ‘didn’t
make the effort.” . . .
One of the most frustrating things in my mind
is that we get graded on something that has no
educational value. I would very much like to
discontinue these childish dress-up days.
JENNIFER STARSINIC Hummelstown
Fix #3
38

Fix #4
Don’t punish academic dishonesty
with reduced grades; apply other
consequences and reassess to
determine actual level of
achievement.
39

“Words such as lying, dishonesty, misrepresenting,
deception, and morality appear in the literature on
cheating and may be applied to situations in which
students do not realize that they are “wrong” in
school terms. The line between helping (an
ethical behavior) and cheating (an unethical
behavior) is culturally marked and variable.
Where the line is drawn is related to cultural
differences in the purposes of schooling, notions of
how knowledge is constructed, the nature and
meaning of assessment, and the relationship
between the individual and the group.”
Source: Rothstein-Finch, C. and Trumbull, E. 2008 Managing Diverse
Classrooms,158, in O’Connor, K., How to Grade for Learning,
Third Edition, Corwin, 2009, 95 40
Fix #4

“No studies support the use
of low grades or marks as
punishments. Instead of
prompting greater effort,
low grades more often
cause students to withdraw
from learning.”
Guskey and Bailey, Developing Grading and Reporting
Systems for Student Learning, Corwin Press, 2001, 34-35
Fix #4
41

Fix #5
Don’t consider attendance in grade
determination; report absences
separately.
42

Fix #5
“Excused and unexcused absences are not
relevant to an achievement grade.
There is no legitimate purpose for
distinguishing between excused and
unexcused absences.
For educational purposes, therefore,
there need only to be recorded absences.”
Gathercoal, F., Judicious Discipline,Caddo Gap Press,
San Francisco, 1997, 151 43

Fix #6
Don’t include group scores in grades;
use only individual achievement
evidence.
44

“Group (grades) are so blatantly unfair
that on this basis alone they should
never be used.”
Kagan, S. “Group Grades Miss the Mark,” Educational
Leadership, May, 1995, 69
Fix #6
45

1. no(t) fair
2. debase report cards
3. undermine motivation
4. convey the wrong message
5. violate individual accountability
6. are responsible for resistance to
cooperative learning
7. may be challenged in court.
Kagan, S. “Group Grades Miss the Mark,” Educational Leadership,
May, 1995, 68-71
Kagan’s 7 reasons for opposing group grades
Fix #6
46

“No student’s grade should depend on
the achievement (or behavior) of other
students.”
Source: William Glasser
Fix #6
47

Fix #7
Don’t organize information in
grading records by assessment
methods or simply summarize into a
single grade; organize and report
evidence by standards/learning
goals.
48

Fix #7
Traditional Guideline For Grading
Evaluation Category Expected % Range
1. Quizzes/Tests/Exams 20-30%
2. Written Assignments 15-25%
Creative or explanatory paragraphs, essays,
notes, organizers, writing folios or portfolios
3. Oral Presentations or Demonstrations 15-25%
Brief or more formal presentations or
demonstrations,role-playing, debates, skits etc.
4. Projects/Assignments 10-20%
Research tasks, hands-on projects, video or
audio tape productions, analysis of issues etc.
5. Co-operative Group Learning 5 -15%
Evaluation of the process and skills learned as an
individual and as a group member
6. Independent Learning 5 - 15%
Individual organizational skills, contributions to class
activities and discussions, homework, notebooks
70-130% 49

Fix #7
50

Fix #7
Common Core Math Grade 5
Student:
ACHI EVEMENT EVI DENCE
Strands
Assessments
Summary
10/ 1
Test
10/ 15
PA
11/ 7
PA
11/ 18
PA
12/ 8
PA
12/ 17
Test
Strengths,
Areas for I mprovement/
Observations
Operations and
Algebraic Thinking
( 3)
3
(17/20)
3 3 3
3
(17/20)
3
Number and
Operations in Base
Ten ( 7)
1 NA
Number and
Operations –
Fractions ( 7)
2
(15/20)
4 2 2
2
(15/20)
2
Measurement and
Data ( 5)
4
(19/20)
4 4 1
4
(19/20)
4
Geometry ( 4) 1 2 3 4
4
(20/20)
4
Comments:
51

Stiggins, et al,
Classroom
Assessment
for Student
Learning, ETS,
Portland, OR,
2004, 289
Fix #7
52

Stiggins, et al,
Classroom
Assessment
for Student
Learning, ETS,
Portland, OR,
2004, 289
Fix #7
53

Fix #7
54

“The use of columns in a grade book to represent
standards, instead of assignments, tests, and
activities, is a major shift in thinking . . . Under this
system, when an assessment is designed, the teacher
must think in terms of the standards it is intended
to address. If a (test) is given that covers three
standards, then the teacher makes three entries in
the grade book for each student - one entry for
each standard - as opposed to one overall entry for
the entire (test).”
Marzano, R., and J. Kendall, A Comprehensive Guide to Developing
Standards-Based Districts, Schools, and Classrooms, McREL,
Aurora, CO, 1996, 150
Fix #7
55

Fix #7
“Systems that are aligned - curriculum,
teaching, and assessment - have a greater
chance of success for students.”
Glenda Lappan, NCTM News Bulletin, October, 1998
56

Fix #7
“The principal limitation of any grading
system that requires the teacher to assign
one number or letter to represent . . .
learning is that one symbol can convey
only one meaning. . . .
One symbol cannot do justice to the
different degrees of learning a student
acquires across all learning outcomes.”
Tombari and Borich, Authentic Assessment in the Classroom,
Prentice Hall, 1999, 213
57

Fix #8
Don’t assign grades using
inappropriate or unclear performance
standards; provide clear descriptions
of achievement expectations.
58

Fix #8
“Performance standards specify ‘how
good is good enough.’ They relate to
issues of assessment that gauge the degree
to which content standards have been
attained. . . . They are indices of quality
that specify how adept or competent a
student demonstration should be.”
Kendall, J., and R. Marzano, Content Knowledge: A Compendium of
Standards and Benchmarks for K-12 Education, First Edition, McREL,
1997, 16-17
59

Performance Standards
How good is good enough?
Traditional School approaches
A 90-100% - Outstanding Excellent
B 80-89% - Above Average Good
C 70-79% - Average Satisfactory
D 60-69% - Below Average Poor
F <60% - Failing Unacceptable
Standards-based approaches
(Should be described by levels and linked to a symbol)
Advanced Above standard
Proficient Meets standard
Developing Below but approaching standard
Beginning Well below standard
Fix #8 O’Connor, K.,
How to Grade for
Learning, Third
Edition, Corwin,
2002, 712
60

For classroom assessment
Performance Standards
=
performance descriptors
(school, district, state or provincial
e.g., A B C D; 4 3 2 1; E M N U)
that provide the base for
scoring tools (rubrics, etc)
+
work samples (exemplars)
+
commentaries on the work samples
Adapted from New Standards Sampler, NCEE, www.ncee.org
Fix #8
OVERALL
TASK/
SUBJECT
SPECIFIC
61

O’Connor, K., A Repair Kit for Grading, Second Edition, Pearson, Boston, MA, 2011, 70
62
Fix #8

Wow!
Got it!
Nearly there!
Oh no! Oops!
Fix #8
63

Fix #9
Don’t assign grades based on student’s
achievement compared to other
students; compare each student’s
performance to preset standards.
64

What do you think would happen if
you did an outstanding job, all the
students in your class did an
outstanding job, and all the students
received a grade of 90% or higher?
Fix #9
65

“grading on the curve makes learning a highly
competitive activity in which students compete
against one another for the few scarce
rewards(high grades) distributed by the teacher.
Under these conditions, students readily see that
helping others become successful threatens their
own chances for success. As a result, learning
becomes a game of winners and losers; and
because the number of rewards is kept arbitrarily
small, most students are forced to be losers.”
The 1996 ASCD Yearbook), ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1996, 18-19
Fix #9
66

Fix #10
Don’t rely on evidence from
assessments that fail to meet standards
of quality; rely only on quality
assessments.
67

• appropriate and clear targets (Fixes 7 & 8)
• clear purpose (Fix 13)
• sound design - right method
- well written
- well sampled
- bias avoided
Adapted from Stiggins et al – Classroom Assessment FOR Student Learning,
Assessment Training Institute, 2004, 124
Accurate Assessment
Fix #10
68

“Ask: Have we gathered enough information
of the right kind so we can draw confident
conclusions about student achievement. If
the answer is yes, proceed. . . .
Our challenge is to know how to adjust our
sampling strategies . . . to produce results of
maximum quality for minimum effort.”
Stiggins, R, Student-involved Classroom Assessment, Third Edition,
Merrill Prentice Hall, 510-511
Fix #10 Well Sampled
69

“There are three general sources of assessment
evidence gathered in classrooms:
observations of learning,
products students create, and
conversations - discussing learning with students.
When evidence is collected from three different
sources over time, trends and patterns become
apparent. . . . This process is called
triangulation.”
Davies, Anne, Making Classroom Assessment Work,
Classroom Connections International, Merville, BC, 2000, 35
Fix #10 Well Sampled
70

Bias Avoided
Problems that can occur with the student
Lack of reading skill
Emotional upset
Poor health
Lack of testwiseness
Evaluation anxiety
Problems that can occur with the setting
Physical conditions – light, heat, noise, etc.
Problems that can occur with the assessment itself
Directions lacking or unclear
Poorly worded questions/prompts
Insufficient time
Based on the ideas of Rick Stiggins
Fix #10
71

Fix #10
“Nothing of consequence would be lost by getting rid
of timed tests by the College Board or, indeed, by
(schools) in general. Few tasks in life — and very
few tasks in scholarship — actually depend on
being able to read passages or solve math problems
rapidly. As a teacher, I want my students to read,
write and think well; I don't care how much time
they spend on their assignments. For those few jobs
where speed is important, timed tests may be
useful.”
Howard Gardner, “Testing for Aptitude, Not for Speed,” New York Times,
July 18, 2002 72

Consider what mathematics teaching expert Marilyn Burns
wrote about timed tests. “What about using timed tests to help
children learn their basic facts. This makes no instructional
sense. Children who perform well under time pressure display
their skills. Children who have difficulty with skills, or who
work more slowly, run the risk of reinforcing wrong learning
under pressure. In addition, children can become negative and
fearful toward their math learning. Also, timed tests do not
measure children’s’ understanding . . . . It doesn’t ensure that
students will be able to use the facts in problem-solving
situations. Furthermore, it conveys to children that
memorizing is the way to mathematical power, rather than
learning to think and reason to figure out answers.”
Burns, M. About Teaching Mathematics, 2000, 157
73
Fix #10

Fix # 11
Don’t rely on the mean; consider other
measures of central tendency and use
professional judgment.
74

“Averaging falls far short of providing
an accurate description of what students
have learned. . . . If the purpose of grading
and reporting is to provide an accurate
description of what students have learned,
then averaging must be considered
inadequate and inappropriate”.
Fix #11
75

“Educators must abandon the average,
or arithmetic mean, as the
predominant measurement of student
achievement.”
Reeves, D., “Standards are Not Enough: Essential Transformations
for School Success,” NASSP Bulletin, Dec. 2000, 10
Fix #11
76

Letter to the Editor
- Toronto Globe and Mail
October 15, 2003
Whenever I hear statistics being
quoted I am reminded of the
statistician who drowned while
wading across a river with an
average depth of three feet.
GORDON McMANN
Campbell River, B.C.
Fix #11
77

89
89
89 Mean or Average = 75.2
20
89
89 Median = 89
89
20
89
89
Total 752
Fix #11
78

"Grading by the median provides
more opportunities for success by
diminishing the impact of a few
stumbles and by rewarding hard
work."
Wright, Russell. G., "Success for All: The Median is the Key",
Kappan, May 1994, 723-725
Fix #11
79

Fix #11
80
First attempt
Second attempt
Third attempt
Fourth attempt
Fifth attempt
Sixth attempt
Source: Richard Brown, Alberta high school teacher

O’Connor, K., How to Grade for Learning, Third Edition, Corwin, 2009, 155 81
Fix #11

“Data should be used to INFORM
not determine decisions”
Management Consultant, The Hay Group, personal conversation,
January 2002
Fix #11
82

Fix #12
Don’t include zeros in grade
determination when evidence is
missing or as punishment; use
alternatives, such as reassessing to
determine real level of achievement
or use “I” for Incomplete or
Insufficient evidence. 83

5 pt scale 101 point scale
4 (A) 90-100 11 95 95
3 (B) 80-89 10 85 85
2 (C) 70-79 10 75 75
1 (D) 60-69 10 65 65
0 (F) <60 60 0 50
2 (C) 64 (D) 74 (C)
The Effect of Zeros
Fix #12
84

“The use of an I or “Incomplete” grade is
an alternative to assigning zeros that is both
educationally sound and potentially quite
effective.”
Guskey and Bailey, Developing Grading and Reporting Systems for Student
Learning, Corwin Press, 2001, 144
Fix #12
85

The Last Word on Zeros
“A zero has an undeserved and devastating
influence, so much so that no matter what
the student does, the grade distorts the final
grade as a true indicator of mastery.
Mathematically and ethically this
is unacceptable.”
Rick Wormeli quoted in
O’Connor, K., A Repair Kit for Grading, ETS/ATI, Portland, 2007, 92
Fix #12
86

Fix #13
Don’t use information from formative
assessments and practice to determine
grades; use only summative evidence.
87

Diagnostic - assessment which takes place prior to
instruction; designed to determine a student's attitude,
skills or knowledge in order to identify student needs.
Formative - Assessment designed to provide
direction for improvement and/or adjustment to a
program for individual students or for a whole class,
e.g. observation, quizzes, homework, instructional
questions, initial drafts/attempts.
Summative - Assessment/evaluation designed to
provide information to be used in making judgment
about a student’s achievement at the end of a
sequence of instruction, e.g. final drafts/attempts,
tests, exams, assignments, projects, performances.
Fix #13
88

“The ongoing interplay between assessment and
instruction, so common in the arts and athletics, is
also evident in classrooms using practices such as
nongraded quizzes and practice tests, the writing
process, formative performance tasks, review of
drafts and peer response groups. The teachers in
such classrooms recognize that ongoing
assessments provide feedback that enhances
instruction and guides student revision.”
McTighe, J., “What Happens Between Assessments,” Educational
Leadership, Dec. ‘96-Jan. ‘97, 11
Fix #13
89

“The thrust of formative assessment is toward
improving learning and instruction. Therefore, the
information should not be used for assigning
“marks”as the assessment often occurs before
students have had full opportunities to learn
content or develop skills.”
Manitoba Education and Training, Reporting on Student Progress and
Achievement: A Policy Handbook for Teachers, Administrators and Parents.
Winnipeg, 1997, 9
Fix #13
90

Firm evidence shows that formative assessment is
an essential component of classroom work and
that its development can raise standards of
achievement, Mr. Black and Mr. Wiliam point
out. Indeed, they know of no other way of raising
standards for which such a strong prima facie
case can be made.
Black, P. and D. Wiliam, “Inside the Black Box,” Kappan, October 1998, 139
Fix #13
91

Black and Wiliam identify a number of key factors in using
assessment for learning:
• “feedback to any pupil should be about the particular
qualities of his or her work, with advice on what he or she
can do to improve,” (143)
• “students have to be actively involved” (in their own
learning) (141)
• “the results (of assessment) have to be used to adjust
teaching and learning,” (141)
• recognition of “the ways in which assessment can affect the
motivation and self- esteem of students” (141)
• “self-assessment by pupils, far from being a luxury, is
in fact an essential component of formative assessment.” (143)
92
Fix #13
Black, P. and D. Wiliam, “Inside the Black Box,” Kappan, October 1998,

Feedback that Supports Learning
Focuses on attributes of the work rather than
on attributes of the student
Is descriptive of the work; how to do better
Clearly understood by the user
Is sufficiently detailed to be helpful, but does
not overwhelm
Arrives in time to inform the learning
Chappuis, 2009
93
Fix #13

Kinds of feedback
264 low and high ability year 7 pupils in 12 classes in 4 schools;
analysis of 132 students at top and bottom of each class
Same teaching, same aims, same teachers, same class work
Three kinds of feedback: marks, comments, marks+comments
[Butler(1988) Br. J. Educ. Psychol., 58 1-14]
Feedback Gain
marks none
comments 30%
both none
From a presentation by Dylan Wiliam - “Inside the Black Box”
Fix #13
94

Purposes of Homework
- introduces material presented in
future lessons. These assignments aim to help students
learn new material when it is covered in class.
- to reinforce learning and help
students master specific skills.
- asks students to apply skills they
already have in new situations.
- requires students to apply many
different skills to a large task, such as book reports,
projects, creative writing.
PRACTICE
PREPARATION
EXTENSION
INTEGRATION
Source: NCLB website - Homework Tips for Parents
Fix #13
95

TASK METHOD(S) STRATEGY(IES) SCORING TOOL ASSESSOR
ROLE PLAY Practice(s) Performance Ass't Performance Rubric self/peer
QUIZ(ZES) Paper and Pencil Selected Response Marking Scheme Teacher
BROCHURE Draft Performance Ass't Product Rubric peer
BROCHURE Near Final Performance Ass't Product Rubric self/peer
Sample Assessment Plan
Formative Assessment for Unit 1
Summative Assessment for Unit 1
TASK METHOD(S) STRATEGY(IES) SCORINGTOOL ASSESSOR
ROLEPLAY PerformanceAss't Performanceassessment Rubric Teacher
TEST(S) PaperandPencil Selected&ConstructedReponse MarkingScheme Teacher
BROCHURE PerformanceAss't Product Rubric Teacher
Fix #13
96O’Connor, K., A Repair Kit for Grading, Second Edition. Pearson ATI, 2011. 113

Fix #14
Don’t summarize evidence accumulated
over time when learning is
developmental and will grow with time
and repeated opportunities; in those
instances emphasize more recent
achievement.
97

The key question is, “What information provides
the most accurate depiction of students’ learning
at this time?” In nearly all cases, the answer is
“the most current information.”
If students demonstrate that past assessment
information no longer accurately reflects their
learning, that information must be dropped and
replaced by the new information. Continuing to
rely on past assessment data miscommunicates
students’ learning.
Fix #14
98

Fix #14
“We know that students will rarely perform
at high levels on challenging learning tasks at
their first attempt. Deep understanding or
high levels of proficiency are achieved only
as a result of trial, practice, adjustments
based on feedback and more practice.”
McTighe, J., “What Happens Between Assessments”,
Educational Leadership, Dec. ‘96 - Jan. ‘97, 11
99

Fix #14
100O’Connor, K., A Repair Kit for Grading, Pearson ATI, 2011, 123

Fix #15
Don’t leave students out of the
grading process. Involve students;
they can - and should - play key roles
in assessment and grading that
promote achievement.
101

Fix #15 Motivating Students Towards Excellence
Rick Stiggins believes student-involved
assessment is the route to follow. It includes:-
* student involvement in the construction of
assessments and in the development of criteria
for success;
* students keeping records of their own
achievement and growth through such strategies
as portfolios; and
* students communicating their achievement
through such vehicles as student-involved
parent conferences
102

For grades that are:
Accurate Fixes 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 10
11 12 14
Consistent Fix 8
Meaningful Fix 7
Supportive of learning Fixes 13 14 15
103

Grading “Top Ten + 1” Reference List
(in alphabetical order)
Brookhart, S. Grading, Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, 2004
Canady, R. and P. R. Hotchkiss, “It’s a Good Score: Just a Bad
Grade,” Kappan, September 1989, 68-71
Cooper, D. Talk About Assessment, Thomson Nelson, 2007
Donen, T, Grades Don’t Matter, Fairview High School, TN, 2010
Guskey, T. R. and J. Bailey, Developing Grading and Reporting
Systems for Student Learning, Corwin, 2001
Kagan, S., “Group Grades Miss the Mark,” Educational
Leadership, May 1995, 68-71
104

Grading “Top Ten + 1” Reference List (cont.)
Kohn, A., “Grading: The Issue is not How but Why,”
Educational Leadership, October 1994, 38-41
O’Connor, K., How to Grade for Learning: Linking Grades to
Standards.Corwin, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2009
Stiggins, R. et al, Classroom Assessment for Student Learning,,
ETS, Portland, 2004
Wiggins, G., “Honesty and Fairness: Toward Better
Grading and Reporting” in Guskey, T. R. (Editor),
Communicating Student Learning: The ASCD Yearbook, 1996,
Alexandria, VA, 1996, 141-177
Wormeli, R. Fair Isn’t Equal, Stenhouse/NMSA, 2006
105

Median/Mode
Mixed quality
Assessment
Standards
Achievement
separate from
work habits/ skills
Summative only
More recent
emphasized
More than one
opportunity
Professional
judgment based on
evidence related to
Published performance
standards
High quality assessment
Student
understanding
and involvement
Assessment Methods
Achievement/
non-achievement
factors mixed
Everything ‘counts’
All data cumulative/
similar significance
One opportunity only
Calculation only
Mean
Teachers’
idiosyncratic
standards
Poor quality
assessment
Teacher centered
with unclear targets
Continuums for Grading
106

“. . . the primary purpose of classroom
assessment is
to inform teaching and improve learning,
not to sort and select students or to justify a
grade.”
McTighe, Jay and Ferrara, Steven, “Performance-Based Assessment in the
Classroom”, Pennsylvania ASCD
107

Grades
should come from
body + performance + fixes
of standards
evidence
i.e., professional judgment
NOT
just number crunching
a
108

Pearson/ATI Introduction to How to Grade for Learning

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