My ePortfolio

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Undergraduate Studies
ePortfolio
Kelsey B. Gillingham
Bachelor of Arts in Psychology
with a Minor in Criminal Justice,
2010

Personal Statement
My name is Kelsey Gillingham and I may not be the typical graduate school applicant that you are used to
hearing from. I am a 27-year old female, born and raised in Santa Cruz, California. Unlike many students who are
fortunate enough to apply to graduate school, I have not made my journey in the most traditional route. My family
could never afford to send me to college, so I worked hard to support myself and put myself through undergraduate
school while working a strenuous full-time job. Upon completing my undergraduate studies at the end of October of
2010, I will have become the first person in my entire family to obtain a Bachelor’s degree and will have obtained my
degree in Psychology with a minor in Criminal Justice. All of my life, my parents told me that if I wanted something
bad enough, I could obtain it through hard work and determination; despite the many limitations and obstacles that my
life might present. As a result, I have grown into an extremely motivated and determined individual and once I set my
mind to something, I will work hard to overcome any challenges that might prevent me from obtaining my goal.
My determination may be best presented in my chosen education and career paths. Since a young child, I
always knew I wanted to make a positive difference in the world and help people. Perhaps I was inspired by the people
who helped me in my times of need. Starting at age 17, I put myself through a local community college and obtained
my Associate’s of Arts degree in Psychology while working three jobs and volunteering for a local Hospice
Organization as a Bereavement Volunteer. My goal was to become a Marriage and Family Therapist and to specialize
in post-traumatic stress disorder. From there, I desired to continue my schooling in psychology within a Bachelor’s
program; however I also needed to work full-time in order to support myself. In addition, my interests in psychology
had since expanded from counseling to include the processes of criminal behavior. As a result, I chose Argosy
University Online’s Bachelor of Art’s program in psychology with a minor in criminal justice to pursue my academic
interests.
After approximately one year of attending classes full-time online at Argosy University, I admit I grew
somewhat bored of a solely academic approach to my interests in psychology and criminal behavior. I desired a more
hands-on approach that would allow me to make a difference “in the now”, versus having to wait until I graduate from

Personal Statement Continued
my studies. This eventually led to my application at the Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner’s Office as a Deputy
Sheriff Trainee. My determination to succeed and overcome multiple difficult challenges resulted in my graduation of
the academy and completion of a stressful and equally rigorous 17-week long field training program within the agency.
Upon becoming a full fledged Deputy Sheriff, I had overcome several personal, physical, mental, and emotional
challenges that I never imagined I would ever be able to overcome. However, my inability to give-up, my
determination to succeed, and my motivation to make a difference, had ultimately resulted in my overcoming of those
challenges.
The challenges of my chosen career have not stopped there; each and every day I learn something new and
encounter numerous emotional, physical, and mental challenges that come with the duties of the job. After taking a
two-year break from my education to achieve my career goals, I re-enrolled at Argosy University Online and have been
attending classes full-time ever since. Completing a bachelor’s program on a full-time basis has also been extremely
challenging while also working full-time (plus) and often during odd and lengthy hours. However, my desire and
determination to complete my education and obtain my Bachelor’s degree is much greater then the hardships that may
come with it.
My experiences working and interacting in law enforcement have exposed me first-hand, to the negative
psychological and emotional issues that the stressors of the job can have on law enforcement personnel. Law
enforcement exposes police officer to many traumatic incidents and experiences that can often result in severe
emotional and psychological problems, such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. This knowledge has inspired me to go
on to achieve my master’s degree in forensic psychology so that I can better contribute to the psychological needs of
law enforcement and emergency personnel. In addition, a career in forensic psychology will allow me to obtain the
skills needed to critically evaluate individuals within law enforcement agencies, court systems, and the criminal justice
system. My goal is to attend the University of Livermore’s Online Master of Art’s Degree program in Forensic
Psychology and Criminal Investigation, so that I can effectively obtain the skills and knowledge I need to positively
contribute to the psychological world of law enforcement and the criminal justice system.

Curriculum Vitae
PERSONAL DETAILS
Full name: Gillingham, Kelsey Boyd
E-Mail: kelseybg@gmail.com
PROFILE
My career within law enforcement as Deputy Sheriff has led me to gain ample experience and knowledge in
criminal investigation, interview techniques, interpersonal communication and the criminal justice system as a whole.
Within the course of my job related duties, I have had the opportunity to conduct in-field interviews with contacts,
witnesses, victims, and suspects involved in a variety of mental health, violent, sexual, narcotic, gang, juvenile, and
property related crimes. For several months, I have worked directly within the court rooms of the local Superior Court
House as a bailiff. During that time I have had the opportunity to interact closely with inmates, judges, attorneys, and
mental health representatives on a daily basis. In addition, I have become familiar with court processes regarding civil,
criminal, and competency to stand trial related issues. My daily interaction with a variety of individuals from the
community have allowed me the opportunity to develop excellent conflict resolution skills, strategic leadership skills,
decision making skills, as well a compassionate and sympathetic understanding to a number of personal and traumatic
situations. Additionally, my experiences within law enforcement have created a strong belief in personal discipline,
motivation, and determination as a means of reaching goals, completing tasks, and solving problems in an effective,
considerate, and successful manner.

Curriculum Vitae Cont.
Skills Base
- Familiarity with the criminal justice and judicial system
- Knowledge of laws within the USA and specifically California
- Experience in criminal investigation and interpersonal communication
- Familiarity with competency to stand trial related issues
- Strong leadership and decision making skills
- Competency in conflict resolution and problem solving techniques
- Capability to complete tasks in a timely and effective manner
- Strong writing skills in a variety of formats
- Ability to adapt to and work in new and complex environments
- Languages: English and minimal Spanish
- IT: Word, Windows Vista, Power Point, a variety of investigative computer skills
- Sworn oath to protect and serve the community in a lawful and competent manner

Deputy Sheriff at the Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner’s Office
(Santa Cruz, California)
August 2007 – Present
Bailiff
April 2010 - Present
Bailiff Responsibilities:
- Court room security for superior judges, court staff, citizens, and inmates
- Maintaining order and peace within the court room and superior court house
- Transportation and responsibility of inmates within the court room
- Observation and responsibility of inmates within holding cells
- Transportation of inmates to and from the County Jail and Superior Court
- Daily direct contact, cooperation, and coordination with Superior judges and court staff
- Security and observation of individuals entering and leaving superior court
- Observation and knowledge of criminal and civil court proceedings
- Writing crime reports
- Crime scene and evidence collection when necessary
- Interpersonal communication skills and interacting with the community
- Ability to work independently, safely, and effectively in a variety of stressful, dangerous, and critical
situations in a timely manner
- Responding to security threats and taking the appropriate action to eliminate the threat

Patrol Deputy
February 2007 – April 2010
Patrol Responsibilities:
- Protect and serve the community
- Deter criminal activity and deviant behaviors
- Respond to calls for service
- Conduct routine patrol within the community
- Respond to tactical and leadership scenarios
- Conflict resolution and keeping the peace
- Conducting criminal, traffic, civil, child welfare, and death investigations
- First responder and first aid responsibilities when necessary
- Conducing minimal crime scene investigation
- Latent and evidence collection, packaging, and transportation
- Evaluating if a person is a danger to themselves or others, or is gravely disabled
- Placing 72-hour protective holds on individuals to receive mental evaluation
- Community policing and problem oriented policing techniques
- Strong knowledge and competency in California laws and judicial proceedings
- Writing crime reports and search warrants
- Testifying within the California Superior Court
- Ability to work independently, safely, and effectively in a variety of stressful, dangerous, and critical
situations in a timely manner
- Responding effectively to safety issues and security threats

Administrative Assistant; Advertising Production Coordinator; and Staff Writer for
Good Times Newspaper and Entertainment Weekly
2004 – August 2006
Administrative Assistant Responsibilities:
- Answering and making company related phone calls
- Coordinating client-sales staff communication
- Writing legal documents for newspaper publication
- Customer service and conflict resolution skills
- Interpersonal communication skills
- Administrative and secretarial duties
- Minor advertising sales
- Advertisement design
- Writing and typing various sales related documents
- Complying with newspaper deadlines
Advertising-Production Coordinator Responsibilities:
- Coordinating communication between advertising and production department
- Coordinating advertisements between advertising and production department
- Minor advertisement sales
- Advertisement design
- Responsibility for advertisement scheduling, sales, and production
- Writing legal documents for newspaper publication
- Maintaining communication and deadlines within advertisement department
- Writing and typing various sales related documents

Staff Writer Responsibilities:
- Investigating local events within the community
- Writing various newspaper entries for publication within the newspaper
Insurance Biller for Charles Savocca Acupuncture Company
(Aptos, California)
2003 - 2004
Insurance Billing Responsibilities:
- Maintaining and organizing client’s medical insurance information and status
- Communication with various medical insurance agencies
- Establishing legitimacy and benefits within client’s medical insurance
- Accurately billing clients and insurance company for acupuncture services
- Utilizing computer software to organize, type, and print billing information
- Mailing medical bills to clients and medical insurance agencies
- Ability to work independently in an effective and timely manner
Customer Service/ Waitress for The Farm Bakery & Café
(Aptos, California)
Summer 2001 – Summer 2004
Customer Service Responsibilities:
- General customer service and communication skills
- Ability to work in a positive and effective manner
- Receiving, counting, and returning appropriate money and change for goods
- Minor supervisory skills and safely closing business
- Maintaining quality and legitimacy of business

EDUCATION
Aptos High School
(Aptos, California)
1997-2001
Graduated with High School Diploma in June of 2001
Cabrillo College (Full-time status)
(Aptos, California)
2001-2004
Psychology and Human Services Double Major
Obtained Associates of Arts in Psychology in June of 2004
Argosy University Online (Full-time status with a break as a result of attending
Police Academy and working full time in law enforcement)
2005-2006 & January 2010-Present
Psychology Major with a Minor in Criminal Justice
Bachelor in Arts degree in Psychology with a minor in Criminal Justice on
October 27, 2010.

PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
Job Related Training and Education:
- Attended Peace Officer Standard Training (POST) Basic Police Academy – 6 months, attended 07-08
- Obtained Peace Office Standard Training (POST) Basic Certificate – February 12, 2008
- Attended 17 week agency Field Training Program with senior deputies
- Attended several in-house training days and programs
- Received specialized investigative training from senior deputies in various fields
- Attended several POST certified training courses on local gangs and gang activity held by the Central
Coast Gang Investigators Association and obtained POST certification in several gang related
courses
- Attended four day POST certified training course on interview and interrogation course held by Third
Degree Communications and obtained POST certification in interview and interrogation training.
Other Training & Education:
- Completed comprehensive bereavement (grief support) training from the Hospice of Santa Cruz County
Grief Support Program in 2003
- Previous certification as a bereavement (grief support) volunteer 2003-2005
- Volunteered from 2003-2005 as a bereavement volunteer where I counseled children and teenagers who
had lost a loved one, and facilitated meetings in an individual, group, and school setting.
- Studied abroad during the Summer of 2004 in Oaxaca, Mexico and attended a school to study
Spanish, while living with a native family. Also explored the state of Puebla and Mexico City during
my studies.

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS
- Member of the Central Coast Gang Investigators Association (CCGIA)
- Member of the Biker Investigator Association of Northern California (BIANCA)
- Member of the International Academy of Investigative Psychology (IAIP)
- Member of the American College of Forensic Examiners International (ACFEI)
- Member of the American Society of Criminology (ASC)
INTERESTS
Professional Interests:
- Issues in Forensic Psychology pertaining to criminal investigation, criminal behavior, profiling, competency to stand
trial/fit for duty examinations and juvenile competency evaluations.
- The etiology of crime
- Interview, interrogation, and inter-personal communication techniques
- Community oriented policing
- Gang investigation; specifically involving outlaw motorcycle gangs and white supremacy gangs.
- Violent crimes involving juvenile offenders
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and work related stressors within law enforcement and emergency personnel
Personal Interests:
- Exploring and researching my heritage – Traveled to Scotland in the summer of 2009 with my parents and explored
various aspects of our Scottish heritage and ancestors.
- Traveling; specifically internationally – I plan to travel to England and Ireland with my parents in the summer of 2011 (My
English and Scotts-Irish heritage).
- Learning the Spanish Language – Spanish is a common second language in the community that I live in.
- Reading – Particularly mystery and crime fiction and nonfiction, as well as new research on psychology and criminal
applications
- Hiking and camping in the great outdoors – I love nature.
- Playing acoustic guitar – Steel and classical

Reflection
“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-- I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the
difference.” – Robert Frost
My journey at Argosy University Online has been a challenging and motivating adventure
towards obtaining my Bachelor of Art’s degree in Psychology with a minor in Criminal Justice. I
started my adventure at Argosy University Online in 2007 and once I hit my half-way mark, decided
I had to put school on hold while I furthered my career and attended a basic police academy. In
January of 2010, I determined that I was at a place in my career that I could finally re-apply to
Argosy and finish my Bachelor’s degree. For the past ten-months I have worked full-time (plus) as a
Deputy Sheriff with the Santa Cruz Sheriff’s Office, while also attending Argosy University as a
full-time student. Working full-time and consecutively going to school full-time has been an
extremely challenging road to take. However, my extreme motivation, determination and passion for
succeeding and furthering my career and intellectual interests has helped me to take each step
towards achieving my goal; to be the first in my family to graduate with a Bachelor’s degree.
Throughout my educational and professional career, my goal has always been to help people.
From the experiences I’ve encountered within my life, I have been drawn to the foundations of
psychology since a young age. Knowledge and experience in psychology and criminal justice will
allow me to pursue a career that will ultimately allow me to help people to the best of my ability. No
matter how difficult or challenging my experiences as a full-time student and peace officer have
been, I am extremely grateful to have had the opportunity to learn from the qualified staff at Argosy
University Online and to further my education in psychology and criminal justice.

Table of Contents
Professional Work Samples:
- Cognitive Abilities: Critical Thinking and
Information Literacy
- Research Skills
- Communication Skills: Oral and Written
- Ethics and Diversity Awareness
- Foundations of Psychology
- Applied Psychology
- Interpersonal Effectiveness

Critical Thinking
A Case Study of the Boston Strangler:
A look at Attachment Disorder, Antisocial Personality, and Psychopathic Personality
in the life of Albert DeSalvo
By Kelsey Gillingham; 1-28-10
From June 1962 to January 1964, a mysterious and dangerous sexual predator referred to as the ‘Boston
Strangler,” preyed on the lives of 13 female victims; using strangulation, torture, rape, and molestation to kill them
(Hiperaktiv, 2010). A moderately normal man by the name of Albert DeSalvo claimed to be the murderer responsible
for sadistically taking the lives of these 13 women, as well as robbing and sexually assaulting nearly 300 other women
(Hiperaktiv, 2010). Renowned former FBI profiler, John Douglas and former co-workers, Ann Burgess, Allen
Burgess, and Robert Ressler (2006), classify DeSalvo as being a sexual sadist, or “one who has established an
enduring pattern of sexual arousal in response to sadistic imagery.” Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, and Ressler (2006)
further state that sexual gratification is obtained by the deviant by means of torture involving excessive mental and
physical means.” After DeSalvo was examined by a psychiatrist, two things of importance were determined; 1)
DeSalvo had an incredible photographic memory, and 2) he craved attention and recognition for the murders and
wanted the notoriety attached with the Boston Strangler to be his own. (Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, and Ressler,
2006). Douglas and his co-workers concluded that two eye-witnesses could not identify DeSalvo but found his friend,
George Nassar incredibly familiar (Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, and Ressler, 2006).
Douglas and fellow FBI profiler, Mark Olshaker (1999) discuss their findings on DeSalvo while studying the
backgrounds of violent offenders. DeSalvo had an early role-model that was “an alcoholic father who broke Albert’s
mother’s fingers in anger. The man regularly beat him and his six brothers and sisters, and brought home prostitutes
(Douglas and Olshaker, 1999).” Douglas and Olshaker (1999) also determined that DeSalvo and other violent
criminals like him that underwent abusive, unstable, or deprived family situations, often developed a lack of self-worth
and self-confidence but also had considerably high IQ levels.

Critical Thinking Cont.
Levy and Orlans (2004) state that, “children with a history of severe attachment disorder develop aggressive,
controlling, and conduct-disordered behaviors that contribute to the development of an antisocial personality.”
Attachment disorder is often caused by abuse, neglect, multiple out-of-home placements, and other prolonged
separations from the primary caregiver (Levy and Orlans, 2004). Three major assumptions of attachment disorder
“distill to a biological system that, when operating, supports closeness in physical space between the child and the
parent(s) and caretaker(s) to support survival and, in the Darwinian sense, of survival of the fittest, the most adaptable
and skilled (Argosy University, 2010).” Levy and Orlans (2004) describe that children suffering from Attachment
Disorder often become impulsive, rage-filled, violent, aggressive, extremely oppositional, and unable to give and
receive love and affection, and lacking in conscience, remorse, and empathy for others. Levy and Orlans (2004) further
note that, “disruption of attachment during the crucial first three years of life can lead to “affectionless psychopathy,”
the inability to form meaningful emotional relationships, coupled with chronic anger, poor impulse control, and a lack
of remorse (Bowlby, 1969). These disturbing psychosocial qualities have contributed to a more violent and “heartless”
character to the crimes being committed by today’s youth.”
Many of the symptoms and personality traits of an adult psychopathic and antisocial personality are displayed
in severely attachment-disordered children (Levy and Orlans, 2004). Levy and Orlans (2004) further illustrate that
Davis (1998) notes that serial killers seek control over others, lack a moral conscience, and display other typical
symptoms similar to those of antisocial and psychopathic personalities, by the age of 12. DeSalvo also displayed
symptoms of antisocial and psychopathic personality traits as a child and tortured animals at a young age (Cruelty to
animals is one of the most disturbing manifestations of attachment disorder) (Levy and Orlans, 2004).
Conklin (2010) defines Antisocial Personality Disorder as, “a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and
violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.” Conklin
(2004) further outlines traits of Antisocial Personality Disorder, which is similar in likeness to psychopathy or
sociopathy, as, deceitfulness, manipulation, failure to conform to social norms, aggressiveness, irritability, lack of
empathy, disregard for self and others, cynicism, arrogance, glibness, and irresponsibility. The psychopathic
personality describes a “person utterly without conscience and guilt and characterized by pretentious self-absorption,

Critical Thinking Cont.
extreme intolerance to boredom, excitement-seeking, severely limited frustration tolerance, and quick temper and rage
(Argosy University, 2010).” A psychopath is devoid of emotion and totally amoral, which is very similar to a person
with Antisocial Personality Disorder and both possesses the likelihood that they may become a serial killer (Argosy
University, 2010).
Albert DeSalvo was exposed to abuse, neglect, prolonged out-of-home placement and separation from his
primary care giver as a child and thus suffered from a severe form of Attachment Disorder. DeSalvo’s disruption of
secure attachment to a primary caregiver during the early years of his life led to his development of “affectionless
psychopathy” which later manifested itself into a severe case of antisocial personality disorder within his adolescence,
where he demonstrated such signs as cruelty to animals (Levy and Orlans, 2004). As DeSalvo grew into adulthood, he
had already long been exposed to the early exploitation of sex, abuse, neglect, and disregard for human life
(Hiperaktiv, 2010). These symptoms of psychopathology progressed violently and rapidly and DeSalvo eventually
developed into the sexual sadistic serial killer known as the Boston Strangler. It is clear that DeSalvo’s experiences
and treatment as a child contributed to his development of psychopathy and thus led to the murders, torture, robbery,
and molestation of hundreds of innocent women.
References:
Argosy University. (2010). The Antisocial Personality and the Psychopathic Personality. Module Three. Retrieved January
28, 2010 from www.myeclassonline.com.
Conklin, John. E. (2010). Criminology: Tenth Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson- Prentice Hall.
Douglas, J. E, Burgess, A. W, Burgess, A. G. and Ressler, R. K. (2006). Crime Classification Manual: A Standard System
for Investigating and Classifying Violent Crimes (2nd Ed.). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Douglas, J. and Olshaker, M. (1999). The Anatomy of Motive. New York, NY: Scribner-Mindhunters Inc. Hiperaktiv
(2010). Modus Operandi – Serial Killers. Case File: Albert DeSalvo the Boston Strangler. Retrieved on January 28,
2010 from http://www.fortunecity.com/roswell/streiber/273/desalvo_cf.htm.
Levy, T. and Orlans, M. (2004, Winter). Attachment Disorder, Antisocial Personality,
and Violence. Annals of American Psychotherapy, Winter 2004. Retrieved on January 26, 2010 from https://
members.acfei.com/_catalog.php?ctype=showdetail&course_id=ANWI034

Research Skills
The Science of Crime Solving:
The Use of Forensic Science is a Leading Contributor
To Law Enforcement’s Ability to Solve Crimes
By Kelsey B. Gillingham; August 21, 2010
Introduction
The National Institute of Justice (1998) states that, “forensic science can be defined broadly as the
application of scientific knowledge to the legal system, and includes disciplines such as serology, pathology, molecular
biology, biometrics (fingerprint analysis, voice recognition and identification), trace evidence (hair, fiber, and paint
identification) and weapons identification.” Forensic technology is further defined as the tools or methods used to
apply the scientific knowledge of forensic science (National Institute of Justice, 1998). Ultimately a forensic lab can
do nothing without the physical evidence gathered by police and evidence technicians; it is the fuel that runs a forensic
laboratory (National Institute of Justice, 1998). Ramsland (2007) describes that forensic science; like other scientific
applications, utilizes a rigorous procedure that includes the use of controlled conditions, reliable data collection, and
the attempt to disprove hypotheses. A key component in forensic science is the application of forensic investigation; a
process which utilizes observation of a crime scene as a whole and further identifies items in that context that should
be carefully analyzed by forensic based tests (Ramsland, 2007). Forensic investigators (which include specially trained
scientists and investigators, as well as street level law enforcement) are an important aspect of forensic science, for
they are the ones that identify and collect evidence which is to be forensically analyzed. Coroners and forensic
pathologists also play an important role in forensic science by identifying the cause and time death by analyzing
forensic science applications and technology (Ramsland, 2007).
The idea of forensic science has been recorded as far back as the 700s AD, when the “Chinese used
fingerprints to establish identity of documents and clay sculpture, but without any formal classification system
(UMBC, ND).” In the fourteenth century A.D. the first recorded use of expert testimony in criminal trials in Europe
were recorded (Kurland, 2009). Additionally, in 1248 AD, the first recorded application of using medical knowledge
to solve a crime was recorded in the Chinese book, Hsi Duan Yu (the washing away of wrongs), which contained a
description of how to distinguish drowning from strangulation (UMBC, ND). Throughout history, forensic science has
evolved to include scientifically based analyses of forensic evidence located within the context of a crime (Ramsland,
2007).

Research Skills Cont.
The development and use of forensic science has made a significant difference in the world of crime solving.
Discoveries in forensic applications throughout history have contributed to law enforcement’s ability to research and
analyze biological, pathological, medical, and chemical evidences. The important discovery of forensic science
applications such as DNA, latent fingerprints, firearm forensics, and trace and biological evidence have made a
significant contribution to law enforcement’s ability to solve crimes. Such forensic applications as DNA evidence and
latent finger prints have assisted law enforcement in using scientific based research and analysis to either link or
exclude a person from a crime (Kurland, 2009). As a result, forensic science has helped to free many people
wrongfully convicted or accused of a crime that was originally based on unreliable evidence. Equally as important;
forensic science has greatly assisted law enforcement in identifying individuals that are involved in a crime and
scientifically proving their involvement through the use of reliable applications in forensic technology.
Arguments Supporting Forensic Science
Developments in forensic science have increased law enforcement’s ability to solve crimes by linking a
suspect to a crime. Discoveries in forensic science such as the discovery of latent finger prints, DNA, trace evidence,
chemical and biological analysis and other medicinal and biological forms of evidence, have positively contributed to
the world of crime solving by increasing law enforcement’s ability to prove or solve a crime based on scientific and
factual evidence. In addition, forensic science has allowed, once unsolvable cases, to be resolved by increasing the
ability to positively identify suspects, victims, and the deceased. The discovery of DNA and the subsequent use of
DNA profiling, are thought to be of the most significant technological advancements in forensic science that have had
the most profound impact on law enforcement and the solving of crimes (Kurland, 2009). In 1984, geneticist Alec
Jeffreys discovered the ability to compare DNA patterns in family members in his attempt to prove hereditary diseases
(Kurland, 2009). In 1987, Jeffreys first used his developments in DNA identification to assist the police in the village
of Narborough to identify a serial rapist from the DNA identifiers in his semen (Kurland, 2009).
Since 1987, scientists have continued to use discoveries in DNA identification to generate a DNA profile of
an individual by using samples from blood, bone, hair, and other body tissues and products (U.S. Department of
Energy, 2009). The FBI (2010) has also established the national CODIS Unit, which manages the Combined DNA
Index System (CODIS) and the National DNA Index System (NDIS) and is responsible for developing, providing, and
supporting the CODIS Program to federal, state, and local crime

laboratories in the United States and selected international law enforcement crime laboratories to foster the exchange
and comparison of forensic DNA evidence from violent crime investigations. This system is a computer software
program that operates the nationwide databases of DNA profiles of convicted offenders, crime scene evidence that
remains unsolved, and missing persons (U.S. Department of Justice, 2010). This system allows law enforcement
agencies across the nation to compare DNA profiles via the computer and further link serial crimes to each other and
identify suspects by matching unsolved DNA profiles to that of convicted offenders on file (U.S. Department of
Justice, 2010). According to the U.S. Department of Justice (2010), CODIS has helped to match thousands of DNA
profiles to known convicted offenders and to link serial cases to one another.
Another important discovery in forensic science that has contributed greatly to law enforcement’s ability to
identify persons and link them to a crime is latent fingerprints. In Fingerprints were discovered throughout history, to
be unique to each individual and that fingerprints are carried by each individual throughout their lifetime and remain
unchanged from birth (Kurland, 2009). Thus, making them excellent sources of reliable identification. In 1878, Henry
Faulds became the first to publicly suggest the use of fingerprints as a form of criminal investigation and in 1886 he
attempted to convince the Scotland Yard to adopt the method (Beavan, 2001). In 1897, Faulds’ assistant, Azizul
Haque, developed a comprehensive and practical system for classifying fingerprints which did not require the use of
measurements, such as Faulds’ previous method did (Beavan, 2001). In 1901, Britain adopted Haque’s fingerprint
classification system (rightfully coined the “Henry Classification System) and within a year, the system had solved its
first crime; a burglary (Beavan, 2001). The conviction was based on fingerprint evidence; an evidence technique that
was used for the first time in a British court room (Beavan, 2001). By 1904, the use fingerprint identification finally
made its way to the United States and not until 1911, is fingerprint evidence used to convict a crime (murder) for the
first time in a U.S. court room (Beavan, 2001). It is not until several years later in 1999, when the FBI installs a
massive fingerprint computer that is capable of storing approximately 65 million people’s fingerprints, entitled the
Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems or AFIS (Beavan, 2010; National Academy of Science, 2010). Today,
the FBI and other law enforcement agencies continue to analyze and compare latent fingerprints, palm prints, and
footprints by using high-quality scientific examinations in the area of friction ridge analysis (FBI, 2010). The use of
such scientific latent analysis and the use of the nationwide fingerprint computer system, has contributed to the
effectiveness that the FBI and other law enforcement agencies have in solving and proving crimes.

Developments in forensic science have increased law enforcement’s ability to accurately solve crimes.
Applications in forensic science have helped to scientifically connect DNA evidence, latent finger prints, trace
evidence, and other forms of biological and medicinal evidence to exclude an innocent person’s involvement in a
crime and to increase the overall accuracy of solving and convicting crimes. Developments in DNA identification have
allowed scientists the ability to compare DNA profiles of a suspect and the DNA found at the crime scene, in order to
determine whether the suspect’s sample matches the evidence sample (U.S. Department of Energy, 2009). Ultimately,
if the DNA profiles don’t match; the person did not contribute the DNA found at the crime scene (U.S. Department of
Energy, 2009). In the example above, of the identification of the serial rapist using DNA identifiers found in semen,
police had originally wrongly suspected a 17 year-old boy of the crime (Kurland, 2009). However, due to Jeffreys’
developments in DNA identification, he was able to scientifically determine that each woman had been raped by the
same man, however the 17 year-old’s DNA was not a match to that found in the semen and he was determined not to
be the suspect (Kurland, 2009).
Due to scientific applications in DNA identification, a 17 year-old boy was not wrongfully accused or
convicted of several horrific rapes and the first ever DNA test done in a criminal case resulted in the exoneration of an
accused man (Kurland, 2009). In addition, the development of latent fingerprint evidence has also helped to positively
identify and link a suspect who left prints at the scene of a crime, as well as proving that no evidence places a falsely
accused individual at the scene of the crime. In 1879, Dr. Henry Faulds collected fingerprints from the scene of a
burglary and compared them to that of a possible suspect that they police had located (Kurland, 2009). Faulds was able
to determine that the accused individual was in fact innocent and later positively matched the located prints to that of a
second suspected (Kurland, 2009). As early as 1879, the use of fingerprints has assisted in clearing a falsely accused
man of a charge and identifying a positive suspect. Ultimately, the use of forensic science techniques has contributed
to the accuracy of crime convictions and the overall success in solving crimes.
Forensic science has increased law enforcement’s ability to determine the cause and time of death of a
suspected victim of a crime. Developments in forensic medicines and forensic science have contributed to the forensic
pathologists’ ability to determine the cause of death when someone dies suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently; as in the
case of violent crimes or poisoning, suicides, and accidents (Kurland, 2009). Forensic pathologists’ and coroners have
been conducting autopsies for decades; however they have not always had the scientific ability to determine the
presence or absence of certain causes of death or the time of death. Ancient Egyptian Doctor, Imhotep is believed to

have first practiced forensic medicine and wrote the earliest known documentation on the surgical treatment of
traumatic injuries most likely acquired in combat (Kurland, 2009). Within his written work, Imhotep gave instructions
on how to diagnose each cause of traumatic injury and how best to treat it or classified it as “an ailment not to be
treated (Kurland, 2009).” In 1532, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V devised the Caroline Code of Criminal Law
(Kurland, 2009). This document indicated that a medical doctor should be consulted in all deaths of a violent or
unnatural nature; which included death by poisoning, wounding, hanging, drowning, murder, manslaughter,
infanticide, abortion, and other deaths resulting from injury (Kurland, 2009). In 1823, Dr. Theodoric Romeyn Beck
wrote Elements of Medical Jurisprudence which discussed questions involving various medical ailments such as rape
and persons found dead, and would be used for the next half-century as the standard reference for forensic medicine
(Kurland, 2009). By the 1890s, the duty of the office of the Coroner had made its way to the United States and had
limited its investigation to the investigation of suspicious deaths (Kurland, 2009).
By the 1960’s, it had become common practice to conduct autopsies on the bodies of those who died
suspiciously, suddenly, unexpectedly, or from a violent crime. The concept of autopsy photographs were introduced in
the 1960’s and helped to document the nature, size, depth, and severity of wounds, as well as the processes of the
autopsy and the internal organs (Kurland, 2009). Autopsies at this time also incorporated the examination of the outer
skin for wounds, the collection and analysis of samples from body tissue, body fluids, organs, and any food or urine
left in the body (Kurland, 2009). Kurland (2009) notes that the analysis of the urine left in the body could be used to
determine if any drugs that may have been ingested and the state of food digestion could help determine the time of
death. In addition, the internal organs are removed, weighed, and inspected for physical signs of trauma and tissue
samples are used to conduct toxicological testing (Kurland, 2009). The last part of the autopsy includes examining the
head; the outer skin for wounds, the skull for fractures, the area around the eyes for pinpoint hemorrhages (petechiae
can be a sign of strangulation or hanging), and the brain examined for abnormalities (Kurland, 2009). Each step within
the autopsy process works toward identifying the cause and/or time of death. Kurland (2009) notes that, “many times it
has been shown that the seemingly obvious cause of death is only a contributing factor and sometimes not the true
cause at all.” Therefore, no matter what the cause of death may appear to conclude from the outside; it is the scientific
and thorough forensic analysis of every aspect of the body, both externally and internally that will reveal even the most
hidden cause of death.

This type of thorough investigation and examination of a deceased body has been made capable by the
development and perfection of such forensic science and medicine techniques as the autopsy, toxicology analysis,
urine and food analysis, and appearance of petechiae. Today, coroner offices and law enforcement agencies are able to
utilize such forensic science and medicine techniques to solve crimes by determining the cause of death, time of death,
and size or strength of a possible suspect. In addition, DNA and trace evidence that is located on the body post-mortem
can be used to help identify a possible suspect and other important facts within the investigation. These determinations
aid investigators in locating murder weapons, crime scenes, a possible timeframe for the commission of the crime, as
well as possible suspects; thus increasing law enforcement’s effectiveness and success in solving crimes.
Arguments Against Forensic Science
Forensic science is only as good as the people that are involved in it. Forensic evidence has the potential of
being exposed to contamination, degradation, or human error; which can ultimately effect the legitimacy of a test
result. There are many steps in which evidence is at risk for being exposed to a source that could potentially cause a
forensic test result to become illegitimate. According to Sillup (2010), when collecting, handling, or processing
evidence for forensic examination, “extreme care must be taken to prevent sample degradation, contamination, or
cross-contamination between various samples.” From my own experience in law enforcement; I know that it is within
the crime scene that evidence is most at risk for contamination. Maintaining preservation of evidence is highly
dependent upon the responding officers, deputies, or agents on scene to control the possible contaminants that enter
the crime scene. Often times the evidence collection process has the opportunity to be mishandled by law enforcement
agency collecting it, transporting it, and handling it (Howard, 2010). Kurland (2009) notes that often times law
enforcement agencies lack the proper training or experience to effectively collect and handle evidence. In addition,
often times trained crime scene investigators are unavailable to respond to a crime scene and it is left to the not as
highly trained or experienced street level officer to decide which aspects of the scene constitute items that have the
potential of contributing important forensic evidence (Tilly & Ford, 1996).

The collection and handling of such important forensic evidence is then left in the responsibility of the street
level officer who lacks a high level of experience or training; which ultimately increases the potential for human-error
(Howard, 2010). Ramsland (2007) notes, that the process of collecting of evidence requires one to be careful and
precise. An officer that is not competent in the process has the potential of destroying or cross-contaminating sensitive
forensic evidence. Tilly and Ford (1998) state that, “there is widespread lack of awareness within the police service
about forensic science itself and what various tests can do, which inhibits the optimal usage of forensic science.” In
addition, it ultimately left up to the judge within the court that lacks forensic training to determine whether or not
forensic science results within a case have been sufficiently and effectively been collected, handled, stored, transported
and analyzed and will be deemed admissible within trial proceedings (Kurland, 2009).
Sillup (2010) notes that, “human error, bad laboratory practices, or even outright fraud can still lead to
skewed results.” The risk for contamination, degradation, and human-error starts with the elements involved in the
crime scene itself. It continues with first officer who handles and collects the evidence and from there, the risk
continues to increase with each additional person who handles, transports, stores or processes the evidence and ends
with the judge’s decision that the forensic test results are consistent and admissible. People are not perfect and make
mistakes. Unfortunately however, any mistake made during the processes of collection, handling, storing, or analysis
has the potential of creating an error in the results of any forensic test administered to the evidence. Evidence that is
contaminated, degraded, or subjected to human error has the potential of resulting in a test result that convicts the
wrong person, lets a guilty person walk free, or is unable to provide important information that could possibly lead to
the solving of a crime (Kurland, 2009). As a result, forensic science results can often times be deceptive, inconclusive,
and result in an inability to effectively solve a crime. The science of forensics within crime solving is held too high
and the potential for inconsistencies and false answers from test results have the potential of essentially giving law
enforcement wrong answers in which they ultimately trust. The danger of forensic science lies in the possibility of
human-error and the criminal justice system’s belief that the process involved in forensic science is always consistent.
The inability to analyze forensic evidence is a major contributor to law enforcement’s inability to effectively
solve a crime. Many forensic evidence test results are costly, complicated, and can take a substantial amount of time to
complete. In a world that is so dependent upon monetary values and in a time of economic hardships, many

law enforcement agencies simply cannot afford to complete certain forensic analyses of evidence (Tilly & Ford, 1996).
Tilly’s and Ford’s (1996) study discussing the flaws in forensic science and crime scene investigation in the United
Kingdom, notes that many law enforcement agencies were found to not conduct forensic analyses that were crucial in
proving a connection within a crime, because they were not cost effective. Tilly and Ford (1996) also explain that,
many law enforcement agencies choose not to even collect certain forensic evidence from a crime scene, because they
do not possess the financial capability of analyzing it. In addition, Kurland (2009) states that, “many forensic
techniques are too painstaking and time consuming” and “require highly trained, dedicated technicians that are
equipped with expensive tools.” Many law enforcement agencies also lack the ability to provide adequate training in
collecting evidence and forensically analyzing it, either because of financial reasons or an available level of expertise
within the agency (Tilly & Ford, 1996). In addition to being complicated to use and too costly, forensic science
techniques take so long to complete that the efficient solving of many crimes is greatly jeopardized. Howard (2010)
states that, “on CSI they get a DNA result back at the crime scene, but in reality you're lucky to get it back in a year.”
According to study by Tilly and Ford (1996), within law enforcement agencies the general “absence of
sustained research into ways of solving crimes and their costs means that questions about cost effectiveness, value for
money etc. cannot be answered” and “any case current patterns of usage of forensic science could not reveal its
investigative cost-benefit potential.” Law enforcement agencies and the criminal justice system put so much weight on
the analysis of forensic evidence; however they are cannot determine just how much good it really does contribute to
solving crimes. Law enforcement is in most cases unable to pay for forensic tests to be done on evidence, which
ultimately keeps the evidence from becoming legitimately analyzed and beneficial to the solving of crimes. When law
enforcement van shell out the money to pay for forensic tests, when used in the field, they often times don’t know how
to use them properly. Forensic science is too complicated, costly, and time consuming to have add any realistic
contribution to law enforcement’s efficiency in solving crimes.
Forensic science results are never 100% accurate or reliable. Sillup (2010) admits that no scientific test is
perfect and forensic science is no exception to the rule. For an example; since identical twins have identical DNA, the
use of DNA analysis cannot differentiate between the two blood samples (Sillup, 2010). Therefore, DNA analysis can
never be 100% affective or reliable in determining that a specific person is linked to a crime if they have an identical

twin. This presents a problem to law enforcement, because they will not be able to use DNA analysis as a means of
proving one identical twin committed a criminal act and the other did not. This provides the opportunity for a mis-
conviction; convicting the wrong person for a crime they did not commit and letting a guilty person walk free.
Research has shown that, DNA testing has never been 100% accurate and there have been more than 50 false
incriminations based on faulty testing (Mysciencedegree.com, 2010). In addition, Kurland (2009) explains that, the
processing of fingerprints is not in fact a foolproof analysis. Despite the fact that fingerprints are unique to each
individual, the patterns that they are composed of can be so intricate and variable that it is extremely difficult to
recognize a match (Myforensicsciencedegree.com, 2010). Even though computer technology contributes to the ease
and efficiency of matching fingerprints, even the most experienced of forensic scientists admit that there is no
completely foolproof statistical formula for matching fingerprints (Myscieincedegree.com, 2010). Another example of
forensic science’s unreliability lies in the process of firearm ballistic analysis which derives from a ballistic theory that
is not based on any strong statistical formula (Myforensicsciencedegree.com).
There is just no guarantee that they science behind forensic analysis is ever going to be 100% reliable or
accurate. Where there are flaws in humans which result in human-errors, there are also flaws in scientific theory which
result in false test results. A potential error in forensic analysis not only results in a false test result but also has the
potential of resulting in wrongfully convicting a person of a crime or allowing a guilty person to escape from
recognition and punishment for a crime. Forensic science has the potential to be flawed, just as any form of science
does. It’s just too risky to bet people’s lives on a scientific theory that has the potential of producing a false result.
Forensic science has the potential of contributing to law enforcement’s ineffectiveness.
Conclusion
Developments in forensic science have changed what is considered to be a reliable method of crime solving.
With the developments made in forensic science, we no longer have to rely on inconsistent and incredible eyewitness
testimonies or independent beliefs or opinions to verify a crime; we can rely on credible and factual forensic evidence
as an investigative tool to solve a crime. The ability to analyze forensic evidence has allowed law enforcement to
scientifically analyze evidence associated with a crime and crime scene, and further use that information to effectively
solve crimes. Forensic science gives law enforcement the ability to use scientific based research and analysis to either
link or exclude a person from a crime, as well as to identify the cause and time of death of a victim. Forensic science
has increased law enforcement’s success in effectively and correctly identifying suspects.

According to Cole (2010), forensic science applications and technology displayed on fictional and non-
fictional CSI based television shows has increased the public’s awareness of the necessity of forensic technology in
crime solving. In fact, Cole (2010) notes that an argument deemed the “tech-effect,” explains that, juries have
reasonably adjusted their expectations slightly in response to real, not fictional advances in forensic technology.
Forensic science has expanded beyond the lab and realm of law enforcement to include jurors and the criminal justice
system as a whole. Thus, applications in forensic science are not only in important factor in law enforcement’s ability
to solve crimes, but now have also begun to develop into a key factor in a jury’s and court’s decision to convict a
person of a crime.
Despite what minor arguments exist regarding the use of forensic science in law enforcement, applications in
forensic science have significantly affected our lives by positively impacting law enforcement’s ability to effectively
do their job and correctly solve crimes. Forensic science has helped to keep many violent criminals away from us and
our families and has ultimately helped to make the world safer overall. Without the development of forensic science
and technology, the effectiveness of the criminal justice system and the likelihood of our freedom to be wrongfully
taken away, would be no better then it was in 700 A.D. when simply the belief that one committed a crime was enough
to execute them. Forensic science has developed significantly throughout history and has helped to shape the
effectiveness of law enforcement and the criminal justice system as a whole, into what we know it to be today.
References
Kurland, M. (2009). Irrefutable Evidence: Adventures in the History of Forensic Science. 1st Ed. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee
Publisher.
Beavan, C. (2001). Fingerprints: The Origins of Crime Detection and the Murder Case that Launched Forensic Science. 1st
Ed. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Ramsland, K. (2007). Beating the Devil’s Game: A History of Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation. 1st. Ed. New
York, NY: Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Cole, S. A. (2010). Forensic Identification Evidence: Utility without Infallibility. American Society of Criminology:
Criminology & Public Policy. Volume 9, Issue 2, May 2010. 375-379.

U.S. Department of Energy (2009). U.S. Department of Energy Offices of Science and Biological & Environmental. Human
Genome Project: DNA Forensics. Retrieved from
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/forensics.shtml.
FBI (2010). Federal Bureau of Investigation – Laboratory Services. Retrieved from http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/labhome.htm
U.S. Department of Justice (2010). DNA Initiative. What is CODIS? Retrieved from
http://www.dna.gov/solving-crimes/cold-cases/howdatabasesaid/codis/.
National Academy of Sciences (2010). Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems. Retrieved from http://
www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12589&page=269
Tilley, N. and Ford, A. (1996). Crime Detection and Prevention Series Paper 73: Forensic Science and Crime Investigation.
Home Office Police Research Group; United
Kingdom. Retrieved from http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/fcdps73.pdf. Howard, M. (2010). All Criminal Justice
Schools. Forensic Science Career Information:
Interview with a Forensic Scientist. Retrieved from http://
www.allcriminaljusticeschools.com/legal-careers/forensics/forensic-scientist-career-interview
National Institute of Justice (1998). National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center. The National Institute
of Justice and Advances in Forensic Science and Technology. Retrieved from
http://www.justnet.org/Lists/JUSTNET%20Resources/Attachments/1267/12575-7.pdf.
Sillup, A. (2010). A Brief History of Forensic Science's Blood and DNA Test Methods. Suite101. Retrieved from
http://forensicscience.suite101.com/article.cfm/a-brief-history-of-forensic-sciences-blood-and-dna-test-methods.
Myforensicsciencedegree.com (2010). The American Academy of Forensic Sciences. The Forensic Science Degree Guide:
25 Surprising Facts about Forensic Science. Retrieved from
http://www.myforensicsciencedegree.com/25-surprising-facts-about-forensic-science/.
UMBC (ND). University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Forensic Science Timeline. Retrieved from http://
www.umbc.edu/tele/canton/STUDENTPROJ/May.A/timeline.htm

Communication Skills
The Role of Depression in Alcohol and Drug Use
(Handout Created for Alcoholics with Depression. Complimentary to Powerpoint Presentation in Slideshare)
By Kelsey B. Gillingham; April 19, 2010
Cold Hard Facts:
- “In any given one-year period, 9.5% of the population, or about 18.8 million Americans suffer from a depressive illness
(Russell, 2007).”
- Over the last 15 years, the number of people seeking treatment for depression in the U.S. has doubled (Russell, 2007).
- One in every five Americans are depressed or unhappy, and report high levels of stress, anxiety and sadness (Russell,
2007).
- Evidence suggests that alcohol use often leads to the development of depression in men, whereas depression in women
typically leads to alcohol use (Russell, 2007).
- Drinking alcohol lowers your serotonin and norepinephrine levels, which are one of the major causes of depression
(Russell, 2007).
- “Stress, or drugs such as alcohol or cocaine, can activate a gene that is linked to depression and other mental problems
(Russell, 2007).”
Identifying Signs & Symptoms of Depression:
- “Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. A bleak outlook—nothing will ever get better and there’s nothing you can do
to improve your situation.
- Loss of interest in daily activities. No interest in former hobbies, pastimes, social activities, or sex. You’ve lost your
ability to feel joy and pleasure.
- Appetite or weight changes. Significant weight loss or weight gain—a change of more than 5% of body weight in a
month.
- Sleep changes. Either insomnia, especially waking in the early hours of the morning, or oversleeping (also known as
hypersomnia).
- Irritability or restlessness. Feeling agitated, restless, or on edge. Your tolerance level is low; everything and everyone
gets on your nerves.
- Loss of energy. Feeling fatigued, sluggish, and physically drained. Your whole body may feel heavy, and even small tasks
are exhausting or take longer to complete.

Communication Skills Cont.
Self-loathing. Strong feelings of worthlessness or guilt. You harshly criticize yourself for perceived faults and mistakes.
Concentration problems. Trouble focusing, making decisions, or remembering things.
Unexplained aches and pains. An increase in physical complaints such as headaches, back pain, aching muscles, and
stomach pain. (Smith, Saisan, Segal, & Segal, 2009).”
The Reality of It:
- Depression and alcohol abuse often go hand in hand.
- Alcohol is a depressant and people with depression should not drink alcohol (Russell, 2007).
- When alcohol wears off, you are likely to be more depressed than ever (Russell, 2007).
- Alcohol and drugs can lead to seizures, depression, manic-depressive episodes and a several other mental problems
(Russell, 2007).
- People who abuse alcohol are more likely to harm them self or commit suicide as a result of depression (Royal College of
Psychiatrists, 2010).
- “Hangovers can create a cycle of waking up feeling ill, anxious, jittery and guilty (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2010).”
- Alcohol abuse causes life to get depressing, which often results in arguments with family or friends, trouble at work,
memory and sexual problems (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2010).
What’s Really Going On?
Other Causes of Depression Include:
- Loneliness - Lack of social support
- Recent stressful life experiences - Family history of depression
- Marital or relationship problems - Financial strain
- Early childhood trauma or abuse - Unemployment or underemployment
- Health problems or chronic pain

Communication Skills Cont.
What You Can Do to Avoid It:
- Learn to identify the stressful triggers in your life that may cause you to drink or use drugs.
- Obtain counseling to address underlying issues that may be causing your desire to drink.
- Make healthy life-style changes that incorporate life coping and stress relaxation skills
- Sobriety
- Utilize your support system and resources – family, friends, counselors, and other people in your life are there for you,
even if when you think they’re not.
- Remember, you are not alone.
References:
Argosy University (2010). Treating Dually Diagnosed Offenders. Module Seven. Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from
www.myeclassonline.com.
Royal College of Psychiatrists (2010). Alcohol and Depression. Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from
http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinfoforall/problems/alcoholanddrugs/alcoholdepression.aspx.
Russell, June (2007). What You Need to Know About Alcohol and Depression: Alcohol and Suicide Facts. Retrieved on
April 19, 2010 from http://depression.about.com/od/drugsalcohol/a/alcoholanddep_2.htm.
Smith, M., Saison, J., Segal, R. and Segal, J. (2009). Understanding Depression: Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Help.
Helpguide.org. Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from
http://helpguide.org/mental/depression_signs_types_diagnosis_treatment.htm.

Ethics & Diversity
Crime and Poverty in Watsonville, California:
A Look at the Correlation between Crime and Poverty Levels
With a Focus on Gang Violence and Firearms
By Kelsey B. Gillingham; 2-17-10
Introduction
Although the small city of Watsonville, California is not among the highest rated cities of reported crime in
America, it is important to consider the magnitude that the city’s population and economic state have on the
commission of criminal acts, particularly involving gangs and firearms. On March 26, 2009, Paul Seave, Director of
the California Governor’s Office of Gang and Youth Violence Policy stated that, "California is in the midst of a deadly
and protracted epidemic fueled by gangs and guns. After losing more than 15,000 lives in 30 years, our communities
must implement anti-violence strategies that work (Office of the Governor, 2009).” In response to these issues,
California Governor, Arnold Schwarzenegger issued approximately $9.2 million in grants to combat gang violence in
northern California. The City of Watsonville was included in this program and received a $400,000 grant as part
Governor's initiative to bring additional resources that engage in job training, especially for youth who are in gangs or
at risk of joining gangs (Office of the Governor, 2009). In regards to the initiative, Governor Schwarzenegger stated
that, “public safety is my highest priority and these grants are an important part of our efforts to protect our
communities by providing them with the resources they need to help reduce gang violence at the local level (Office of
the Governor, 2009).”
Gang Violence and the Use of Firearms during the Commission of Crimes
According to Watsonville Police Department Chief, Manny Solano, 16.2 percent of Watsonville families are
living below the poverty level (Hannula and Guild, 2010). In addition, the area of Watsonville has a 25 percent
unemployment rate, which is the highest in Santa Cruz County (Hannula and Guild, 2010). Chief Solano addresses the
important factor that this poverty and unemployment rate in Watsonville is a major factor in local gang violence
(Hannula and Guild, 2010). Although violent crime rates in general are down 6 percent from 2008, Chief Solano

Ethics & Diversity Cont.
states that, “violent, gang-motivated crime increased by 41 percent in 2009, which reflects increases in robberies,
assaults and homicides (Hannula and Guild, 2010).” In addition, “21 percent of the violent crimes committed with a
firearm are gang-related (Hannula and Guild, 2010).” Law enforcement are encountering youth as young as 13 years-
old that are involved with these violent gangs and crimes (Hannula and Guild, 2010). Chief Solano further states that,
thirty-four percent of the population of Watsonville is under 18 years old, nearly 13 percent of whom dropped out of
school last year (Hannula and Guild, 2010).” Chief Solano reported a positive impact “of community groups such as
Broad-Based Apprehension, Suppression, Treatment Alternatives (BASTA), the Watsonville Police Activities League
and neighborhood watch programs that work with young people and their families and teach them to avoid gangs
(Hannula and Guild, 2010).”
According to a study done by The Disaster Center (2006), in 2005 Watsonville had a population of 47,465
people and a total of 237 severe violent crimes reported, which included murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault.
The number of property crimes reported in the study was 2,043 (The Disaster Center, 2006). The National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS) measures the nation wide level of violent crimes involving rape, sexual assault,
robbery, aggravated and simple assault as well as personal theft and the property crimes of household burglary, motor
vehicle theft and property theft (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010). The survey depicted that in 2008, 5% of these
violent crimes were determined to be committed by an offender(s) that was a gang member (Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2010). The survey further reported that, more male victims reported that the offender(s) was a gang member
then females (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010). Victims also reported that more offender(s) that were gang members
were Hispanic versus Non-Hispanic (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010).
In addition to the involvement of gang members, the survey also looked at the involvement of weapons.
During 20% of all incidents, the offender was armed with a gun, knife, or other object used as gun (Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2010). 7% of violent crimes reported in 2008 involved the use of a firearm by the offender and firearms
were most commonly used in 24% of all non-fatal violent crimes, 4% of violent crimes resulting in injury, and 1%
resulting in gunshot wounds (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010). In addition, firearms were the most commonly used
weapon in 40% of crimes involving armed offenders and were the most common weapon used in 24% of all robberies
(Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010).

Poverty within the Population
The U.S. Census Bureau’s (2008) American Community Survey Report of 2006-2008 reports that during this
time frame the city of Watsonville had a population of 43,392 people. Among the population, 50.5% (21,906) were
male, 49.5% (21,486) were female, and 78.1% (33,901) were Hispanic (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).
Approximately 16.2% of all families, 11.1% of all married couples, and 18.4% of all people were reported to have an
annual income level for the last 12-months that was below the poverty level (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). 33.4%
of all families with a female householder (no male householder present) were below the poverty level and 40.2% of
these families had children under the age of 18 years (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). An overall 25.2% of
individuals under the poverty level were under the age of 18, 15.2% were above the age of 18 years, and 14.3% were
between the ages of 18 and 64 years of age (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). Approximately 68.6% (21,150) of the
population 16 years and older reported being employed in some way an 8.5% reported being unemployed (The U.S.
Census Bureau, 2008). The survey reported that out of a documented 9,393 families, the median income was $51,108
and the mean was $63,447 (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). The median income for non-family households was $29,
919 and the mean was $39, 274 (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). The median income for full-time employed
individuals was $31,113 and the mean was $30,155 (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). The majority of workers were
reported in farming and agricultural fields, as well as office and sales fields (The U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).
It is apparent that a significant portion of the population living in Watsonville is unemployed and/or living
with an annual income below the instated area related poverty level. It should be noted that poverty thresholds and
guidelines are based on household size, age, and economic opportunity (Institute for Research on Poverty, 2009).
Watsonville happens to be situated in the County of Santa Cruz which comprises of exceptionally high priced rent,
property prices, gasoline prices, and community sales tax. In December of 2009, the cost of living index in Santa Cruz
County was very high at 184.9, when the U.S. average is 100 (City-Data.com, 2010). The estimated average house or
condo value in 2008 for Santa Cruz County was $742,272, whereas the California average was $467,000 (City-
Data.com, 2010). In addition the average annual income in Santa Cruz in 2008 was reported as $63,227.

Effects of Poverty on Crime
The high cost of living and the average value of a home in comparison to the low average income for Santa
Cruz County and the city of Watsonville make it easy to see why such members of the Watsonville population fall
below the poverty level. These members of the population just do not make enough money annually to survive
financially in Watsonville. Conklin (2010) discusses one influential theory of gangs by Richard Cloward and Lloyd
Ohlin’s (1960) entitled the differential opportunity theory. The theory emphasis cultural goals and the means people
use to reach those goals (Conklin, 2010). Conklin (2010) explains that, “innovation in the form of crime occurs when
people lack access to the legitimate means to reach culturally approved goals and turn to illegitimate means to achieve
those goals.” The theory focuses on the discrepancy between what lower-class juveniles and adults want and what is
available to them (Conklin, 2010). The cultural and societal expectation in Watsonville of owning expensive things
and having a sufficient amount of money often times fuels the motive behind the commission of violent and non-
violent crimes by offenders. When these offenders are unable to obtain certain expected and coveted items or money,
they often turn to criminal acts such as robbery, burglary, or theft to achieve them. Unfortunately, often times these
crimes can also lead to violence, the possession and use of firearms, and the involvement of gangs to ensure they are
successful. Conklin (2010) states further states that, “their lack of access to legitimate means to reach cultural goals
produces intense frustration, and they search for illegitimate means to achieve cultural goals.”
Conclusion
Gangs often times pose as the access to a “performance structure” for these individuals who must have
support for their performance of delinquent behavior once they have acquired the values and skills to carry them out
(Conklin, 2010). Further more, “the social structure of a community determines the access that lower-class youths will
have to both learning and performance structures (Conklin, 2010).” Therefore, it is the social structure and poverty
level within Watsonville that often times will lead to the violent and criminal behavior of offenders, as well as the
likelihood that an offender will use the structure of a gang and/or firearm to achieve the goals they are unable to
otherwise obtain.
It important that not only the State of California pay consideration to the correlation between poverty and
crimes involving gangs and firearms, but that the nation also be aware of this increasingly important issue and the
likelihood for it to spread throughout neighboring areas within our country.

References:
Argosy University (2010). Economic Disparities; Social Glue; Culture of Poverty. Module Four. Retrieved February 7,
2010 from http://myeclassonline.com.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2010). Gangs. Retrieved on February 7, 2010 from http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?
ty=tp&tid=36.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2010). Weapon Use by Offense Type. Retrieved on February 7, 2010 from
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=43.
City-Data.com (2010). Santa Cruz, California. Retrieved February 7, 2010 from http://www.city-data.com/city/Santa-Cruz-
California.html.
Conklin, John. E. (2010). Criminology: Tenth Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson- Prentice Hall.
Hannula, T. and Guild, T. (2010). Register Pajaronian. 2010, January 14. Solano sworn in as police chief. Retrieved on
February 7, 2010 from http://www.register-pajaronian.com/V2_news_articles.php?
heading=0&page=72&story_id=8229.
Institute for Research on Poverty (2009). What are Poverty Thresholds and Poverty Guidelines? Retrieved on February 7,
2010 from http://www.irp.wisc.edu/faqs/faq1.htm#whatis.
Office of the Governor, 2009. The California Gang Reduction, Intervention, and Prevention Program. Gov. Schwarzenegger
Announces $9.2 Million in Grants to Combat Gang Violence. Retrieved on February 7, 2010 from
http://gov.ca.gov/issue/anti-gangs/.
The Disaster Center (2006). Uniform Crime Reports and Index of Crime in Watsonville in the State of California enforced
by Watsonville from 1985 to 2005. Retrieved on February 7, 2010 from
http://www.disastercenter.com/californ/crime/1258.htm.
U.S. Census Bureau (2008). American Community Survey. Retrieved on February 7, 2010 from
http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=16000US0683668&-
qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false

Foundations of Psychology
A Look at Durkheim’s Ideas of Anomic Suicide in
Contrast to Modern Psychological Views
By Kelsey B. Gillingham; February 10, 2010
Anomic Suicide
Durkheim’s sociological view on the reasons and causes behind the commission of suicide are classified by
four factors; Egoistic suicide, Altruistic suicide, Anomic suicide, and Fatalistic suicide (Gingrich, 1999). While all
four classifications of suicide hold their own relevance, Anomic suicide is most relevant in regards to the breakdown
of a society’s “social-glue;” or social norms, values, laws, and beliefs (Gingrich, 1999). Durkheim described that,
“Anomic suicide is committed by people when society is in crisis or rapid change (University of Chicago, 2010).” As
a result, customary norms may weaken or break down; leaving no clear standards of behavior to guide them
(University of Chicago, 2010). This lack of social glue can cause many people to become confused, their usual goals
lose meaning, and life seems aimless (University of Chicago, 2010).
Gingrich (1999) describes Anomic suicide as being related to a low degree of regulation, or external
constraint on people or when the collectivity of a society is temporarily incapable of exercising its authority over
individuals. This is likely to occur during times of economic depression or over rapid economic expansion; thus
causing new situations with few norms, the regulative effect of structures to weaken, and feelings of “rootlessness” by
individuals (Gingrich, 1999). Once a person is freed from such constraints of a society, they become “slaves to their
passions, and as a result, according to Durkheim’s view, commit a wide range of destructive acts, including killing
themselves in greater numbers then they ordinarily would (Gingrich, 1999).” Gingrich (1999) also notes Durkheim’s
findings of domestic anomie, where “suicides of family members may occur after the death of a husband or wife.”
Durkheim’s study of Anomic suicide included his hypothesis that, “the suicide rate would vary by religion
(Protestants, Catholics, Jews); by marital status (single people and married people); by military status (soldiers and
civilians); and by economic conditions (boom, bust, or stability) (University of Chicago, 2010).” He further believed
that social forces would affect the overall suicide rate (University of Chicago, 2010). Durkheim used statistical
analysis of government records that included all of the above listed variables to conduct his study (University of
Chicago, 2010).

Foundations in Psychology Cont.
Durkheim concluded that suicide rates were highest among those with protestant religious beliefs, those who
were single (non-married) people, soldiers who had achieved an officer rank, and was higher among times of
“economic depression and economic booms than during more stable periods (University of Chicago, 2010).” Further
more, “commitment shaken by rapid social change was likely to increase the chances of anomic suicide (University of
Chicago, 2010).” Although Durkheim’s theory of Anomic suicide was not able to determine exactly which individuals
were most likely to commit suicide, it was able to point out the social forces that were likely to increase a person's
probability of committing suicide; which were rapid changes in a societal structure (University of Chicago, 2010).
A Modern Psychological View
Today, suicide is rated as “the 11th biggest killer of Americans and the third-leading killer of 15- to 24-year-
olds (Springen, 2010). Springen, (2010), describes that within recent studies of suicide, researchers are finding that the
motivation to die, as a result of depression or another mental disorder, is only one part of the problem. Mental illness
alone is no longer considered the most likely reason for suicide. A person must be willing to carry out the act of
suicide, an idea which depends on factors such as fearlessness, being able to tolerate pain, and to act impulsively
(Springen, 2010). The latest research on why people commit suicide, “shows that fearlessness can be conditioned:
people who gain experience with pain, whether from abuse by others or by their own hands, gradually improve their
ability to tolerate discomfort; they also get used to the idea of harming themselves (Springen, 2010).” In addition, a
person’s lack of impulse control may be fueled by societal factors, including the use of alcohol and other substances
(Springen, 2010).
In addition to a biological reason for suicide, Springen (2010) notes that societal factors are now playing a
major role in suicide. For example, a person who has lost their job or house due to the current economic crisis may not
automatically think to kill themselves. However if certain feelings such as hopelessness or humiliation exist in that
person, as well as the “guts” to carry out the act, the combination of factors stemming from societal, biological,
fearlessness, tolerance to pain, and impulsivity, may be the underlying factor in that person carrying out the
commission of suicide (Springen, 2010).

Foundations in Psychology Cont.
Incorporating Durkheim’s Theory of Anomic Suicide into Modern Theories
The modern psychological view of suicide discussed by Springen (2010) incorporates modern factors of
biology, fearlessness, pain tolerance, and lack of impulse control, while also implementing older concepts of
sociological factors similar to Durkheim’s theory of Anomic suicide. This is an excellent example of how Anomic
suicide can also be implemented into the modern ideas and concepts of our high-tech society. In addition, Durkheim’s
theory of Anomic suicide could also be applied to the “dot-com” era and the feelings of anomie, alienation, and greed
occurring within current time frame.
For example, Cook (2006) discusses Australian doctor, Philip Nitschke and his manifesto, Killing Me Softly:
Voluntary Euthanasia and the Road to the Peaceful Pill. Cook’s (2006) article on voluntary euthanasia considers that
“many patients who want to die may not be judged to be clinically depressed and thus “could be perceived by
clinicians to rationally choose suicide as a merciful conclusion to their life.” However, Cook (2006) states that many
of these individuals are actually suffering from a form alienation called, “demoralisation,” a separate psychiatric state
which covers hopelessness, helplessness, meaninglessness and existential distress, and often includes suicidal
thoughts.” He explains that this demoralisation can be caused by “social isolation, declining physical health,
disfigurement, disability, dependency, perceived loss of dignity and concern about being a burden to family (Cook,
2006).” This is only one of many examples of how Durkheim’s theory of Anomic suicide can be used to support and
develop modern ideas within psychology and sociology.
References
Cook, M. (2006). Arena: The Australian Magazine of Left Political, Social and Cultural Commentary. December-January
2005-2006. In Nitschke's Hands. Retrieved on February 9, 2010 from
http://www.australasianbioethics.org/Media/2005-12-mc-arena-nitschke-1.html.
Gingrich, P. (1999). University of Regina - Department of Sociology and Social Studies. Sociology 250. Social Facts and
Suicide. Retrieved on February 9, 2010 from http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/o26f99.htm.
Springen, K. (2010, January-February). Daring to Die. Scientific American Mind, Pg. 40-42.
University of Chicago (2010). Chicago Public Schools. University of Chicago Internet Project. Scientific Method and Emile
Durkheim’s Study of Suicide. Retrieved on February 9, 2010 from
http://cuip.uchicago.edu/~ldernbach/msw/xsdurkhm.pdf.

Applied Psychology
With Duty Comes Hardship:
The Effects of Job Related Stress on Law Enforcement Personnel
By Kelsey B. Gillingham; October 16, 2010
Abstract
This paper reviews research and various reports in literature concerning the job related stressors that law
enforcement personnel encounter on a daily basis. It focuses primarily on specific physical, emotional, psychological
and social problems that result from job related stressors encountered within law enforcement. It takes into
consideration gender differences and methods in reducing stress that incorporate the inclusion of intimate
relationship, counseling, and exercise. It explores current gaps in research and literature that address the specific job
related stressor, which events or incidents are most likely to cause significant stress within an officer; as well as
variations in culture, religion, and race. Job related stress can play a huge role not only in the individual officer’s life
and well-being but also in the overall well-being of the community that the individual serves. This paper examines the
ways in which job related stress negatively effects law enforcement personnel and why such factors are important.
Introduction
Today’s modern world is saturated with unfortunate and horrific acts of violence, terrorism, abuse, sexual
assaults, child neglect, kidnapping, torture and tragic deaths. It is the awful truth that people in our world frequently
kill, murder, torture, rape, molest, sodomize, shoot, stab, rob, burglarize, trick, deceive, neglect, and steal from each
other; as a means of enjoyment, self fulfillment, greed, lust, ignorance and even necessity. Crime would take over our
world completely if it were not for the efforts of law enforcement and the criminal justice system. Law enforcement
personnel (or peace officers) are persons who have attended a Peace Officer Standard Training (POST) certified basic
academy and graduated successfully with their POST certificate. Peace officers can include Police Officers, Deputy
Sheriffs, (California) Highway Patrol, state/federal Marshal, State Park Ranger, District Attorney Investigator, FBI
Agent, ATF agent, Department of Justice agent, CIA agent, etc. Law enforcement plays the “enforcement” role of the

Applied Psychology Cont.
criminal justice system and is responsible for minimizing the criminal and deviant acts within society. Unfortunately,
in order to minimize the most horrible and negative aspects of our society (crime and deviancy), law enforcement
personnel must subject themselves directly to these events; physically and emotionally. Page (2010) describes that,
“policing is psychologically stressful work, filled with danger, high demands, human misery and exposure to death.”
These job related stressors within law enforcement have a negative effect on officers and cause significant physical,
emotional, social and psychological problems that can negatively impact their life and their ability to perform their job
effectively.
Not in the Fine Print
In close comparison to the military; law enforcement is currently considered to be one of the most dangerous,
stressful and health-threatening occupations (Tanigoshi, Kontos, and Remley Jr, 2008). In 1988, 78 law enforcement
officers were killed in the line of duty and since then, hundreds of others been killed, exposed to a life threatening
situation, witnessed traumatic events, or have had “near misses” in dangerous situations (Mann & Neece, 1990). Page
(2010) describes that, “on any shift, police officers may be expected to shoot someone, be shot at, see a partner killed,
use force to resist a physical attack, rescue a battered child, participate in a high-speed chase, and inform a parent that
his or her child has been killed in a traffic accident.” Every person who signs up to be a peace officer is also signing
up for a life-time of stress and negative psychological effects that occur as a result of being exposed to these
traumatizing events day after day. Ramos (2010) notes that the nature of police work is inherently negative and the
bulk of service calls are geared at taking care of others.
Therefore, operating in an environment that frequently exposes officers to high levels of frustration and
danger can often lead to physical, emotional and psychological wear (Ramos, 2010). Chopko and Schwartz (2009)
state that, officers are “especially vulnerable to both direct and vicarious traumatic events, because they must not only
confront illegal and sometimes violent behaviors but they must also assist other first responders (e.g., fire fighters and
paramedics) when they are called to duty.”

The reality is that police work is hard, painful, stressful, emotionally draining and traumatizing; and I speak
form experience. Having been in law enforcement myself for not even three years, I have already been exposed to a
large number of life threatening, physically and emotionally painful and traumatizing events that were a part of the
duties of my job. The duties of law enforcement involve a responsibility by each officer to dive head first into the most
troubling and painful realities of our communities. Unfortunately, what we see, feel, do and experience on the job can
cause not only physical pain and stress but also emotional distress and a variety of unhealthy medical and
psychological problems. Research has shown that gender and race can be an important variable in predicting an
officer’s outcome post trauma exposure (Shaffer, 2010; Page, 2010). Although every person reacts differently to what
they see or experience on the job and the duration and intensity of the reaction can also vary drastically from person to
person; indeed, every person in law enforcement is negatively effected by the job related stressors in some way.
The Job Takes a Toll on Officers
Physical Effects
Research has shown that the stressors related to law enforcement can lead to physical and psychosomatic
conditions; such as ulcers and headaches, as well as negative psychological states such as burnout, depression, anger
and frustration (Burke, 1998). Li-Ping Tang and Hammontree (1992) discuss that research has also shown a link
between job related stress in officers and burnout, negative attitudes towards people, life, and work, as well as
coronary heart disease, hypertension, and ulcers. Grenard (2007) discusses that in a recent study on the physical effects
of stress in law enforcement, officers had higher than expected percentages of diabetes and heart disease. A long-term
study of more then 400 officers conducted by the University of Buffalo revealed that officers over the age of 40 years
have a higher 10 year risk of a coronary event than the average person and police as a group overall, have higher then
average pulse rates and diastolic blood pressure (Page, 2010). The Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police
Stress (or BCOPS) study has identified the significant role of Cortisol (also known as the “stress hormone”) in officers
exposed to job related stressors (Page, 2010). BCOPS has concluded that dis-regulated levels of Cortisol within
officers as a result of chronic stress can ultimately cause an officer to be more susceptible to contracting illnesses
(Page, 2010). An officer’s body then becomes physiologically unbalanced, their organs are attacked and their immune
system is severely compromised due to stress (Page, 2010). Li-Ping Tang and Hammontree (1992) conclude that,
“police stress is significantly related to illness.”

According to Grenard (2007), approximately 35% of officers that participated in a sleep study reported
having sleep apnea which would make it more difficult to get to sleep, staying asleep and awakening well rested and
clear headed; which is also a key component in being effective within the duties of their job. Working alone at night
during the graveyard shift can be stressful for an officer and the graveyard schedule has the likelihood to cause
physiological disruption of an officer’s circadian rhythms (Page, 2010). Page (2010) points out that being continuously
awake at night during the graveyard shift when a person should be sleeping, can also have a profound effect on an
officer’s judgment and decision making.
Social Effects
An officer can be negatively affected socially within their personal lives, relationships and at work. Research
has shown that the stressors encountered within law enforcement can lead to a deteriorating work performance known
as absenteeism (Burke, 1998). Li-Ping Tang and Hammontree (1992) report that approximately 70 percent of all work
related absenteeism is linked to stress-related illnesses. Often times, officers may feel torn between their commitment
to their professional duties and their responsibility and loyalty to their families (Shaffer, 2010). The negative emotional
and psychological effects that officers encounter as a result from their experiences on the job also have the potential of
effecting their families, friends and co-workers. For example, unstable feelings, emotional conflicts, and difficulty
expressing emotional needs could even lead to an increase in family violence within an officer’s home life (Shaffer,
2010).
Emotional Effects
Traumatic and/or disturbing events that officers encounter within their daily duties can lead to significant
levels of stress, as well as emotional difficulties within officers. Chopko and Schwartz (2009) discusses that first
responders (such as law enforcement officers) to incidents involving “destruction to physical property, violence, or
death commonly experience high levels of trauma-related stress, a circumstance that often results in associated
emotional suffering and social problems.” Mann and Neece (1990) state that, many officers exposed to such job
related stressors develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and similar stress-related problems. Additionally,
officers may experience shock, disbelief, dread, anguish, anger and a pressing motivation to take action in response to
the critical event (Shaffer, 2010).

Psychological Effects
Law enforcement has proven to have a variety of negative psychological effects on officers. Research has
shown that the stressors encountered within law enforcement can lead to negative psychological states that include
depression, anger, frustration and burnout (Burke, 1998). Ursano, Fullerton, and Norwood (1995) identified
emergency care workers, children, heroes and the physically wounded as being at higher risk for developing
psychiatric symptoms as a result of experiencing high levels of stress (Shaffer, 2010).” Additionally, a study of the
psychological effects of stress in peace officers determined that emergency care workers, such as firefighters and
police officers, are at higher risk for falling victim to psychological disorders and substandard work performance
(Shaffer, 2010).
Research has shown that, as a “result of such cognitive distortions, emergency care workers may also become
self-destructive and predisposed to increased violence and antisocial behavior (Shaffer, 2010).” Chopko and Schwartz
(2009) also estimate that 12-35% of police officers may meet the diagnostic criteria for PTSD at any given point.
Shaffer (2010) notes that, “cognitive symptoms may cause an officer to have difficulty recalling information, lack the
ability to maintain focus and concentration, have reduced capacity for problem solving, and less effective
communication skills; all of which are important components of being effective in law enforcement. If an officer’s
work related stress is not managed properly, studies have shown that it can cause them to become prone to depression,
alcoholism, anxiety disorders and burnout; all of which may increase their risk for committing suicide (Ramos, 2010).
Differences in Gender & Race
A study on the effects of job related stress in law enforcement and fire fighters determined that gender may in
fact influence the development of an officer’s psychopathology after a traumatic event has occurred (Shaffer, 2010).
Page (2010) describes that researchers within the BCOP study found that, “stress and burnout by officers is embedded
in the gender structure and process of policing, and not simply a response to high stress.” Additionally, gender is a
variable of importance in predicting an officer’s outcome after trauma exposure (Shaffer, 2010). The study also
determined that women have twice the rate of PTSD that men have after witnessing or experiencing a critical incident
and they are more vulnerable to developing it, because they perceive that their lives are more stressful than those of
men (Shaffer, 2010). Although men are men are reported to be more likely then women to be exposed to

trauma, woman are in fact reported to be 2.38-2.49 times more likely to develop lifetime PTSD than men after
exposure to a similar trauma (Shaffer, 2010). In addition, Shaffer (2010) determined that women experience a higher
rate of anxiety, depression and somatic complaints as a result to trauma exposure, whereas men are reported to have a
higher incidence of alcohol and drug abuse as a result (Shaffer, 2010).
There have also been job related physical differences between men and women. The long-term study of 400
officers by Buffalo University concluded that approximately 72 % of female officers and approximately 43% of male
officers have high cholesterol levels (Page, 2010). The BCOP study also revealed that female officers working the day
shift had an increased amount of suicidal thoughts, whereas men had increased suicidal thoughts during swing and
graveyard shifts (Page, 2010). Overall, approximately 23% of male officers and 25% of female officers reported
having twice as many suicidal thoughts on a daily basis then the average person (Page, 2010).
There are also interesting differences in race when it comes to stress. During a study of the correlation
between stress, race and gender, both white and African-American women were reported to have higher levels of
stress than white men, however for unknown reasons; African-American men showed much lower levels of stress than
white men (Page, 2010). Although African-American men appear to experience lower levels of stress overall, they do
tend to exhibit higher levels of burn out then white men (Page, 2010).
The Job Effects Officers in many Ways
Personally
Law enforcement duties can cause significant problems within the lives of officers that are varying in effect.
Problems that an officer may have as a result of exposure to a critical incident or disaster in the line of duty can range
from, “those that are transient and self-correcting to those that are "longer-term, incapacitating, and meet the criteria
for a psychological or psychiatric disorder" (Shaffer, 2010). Additionally, Shaffer (2010) states that, “officers, may
experience disapproving and unfounded thoughts about their performance in responding to the critical incident and
may even entertain the irrational thought that they are somehow responsible for the incident or resulting destruction.”
An officer’s inability to control a situation completely or save every person can have a lasting effect. In fact, research
has shown that a person in an emergency response profession has a 16% to 22.2% chance of developing PTSD over
the span of their career (Shaffer, 2010). Officers may be reluctant to experience or feel the heavy emotions that come

as a result of witnessing a traumatic event and repressing those emotions may lead to depression, anxiety, frustration
and isolation (Shaffer, 2010).
Too many times the emotions, depression, guilt, shame, etc. that an officer may experience as a result of job
related stressors can lead to a fatal ending. The FBI’s handbook by Ramos (2010) on police suicide states that,
“tragically, too many times suicide becomes the way officers deal with the horrors they have witnessed in the daily
performance of their duties, along with internal stressors from their departments and external problems in their
personal lives.” Ramos (2010) explains that officers that also experience relationship problems, “coupled with alcohol
abuse and the accessibility of a firearm, create a recipe for disaster among troubled officers who may view suicide as
the only way out (Ramos, 2010).
Professionally
The health and mental and emotional state of law enforcement officers can effect the officer’s ability to do
their job effectively, keep their partners safe, and the overall performance and liability of the specific agency. Police
officers are at great risk for the development of posttrauma problems that can have an impact on their careers (Shaffer,
2010). Also disturbing is that the personal stress that officers may experience as a result of their duties, ultimately
effects the safety of every one around them in their job. Shaffer (2010) appropriately describes that, “emotional
conflicts and feelings of anger, hatred, and intense apprehension reduce emergency care workers' ability to respond
effectively, even as they often put their personal safety in jeopardy and ignore personal risk while attempting to help
victims (Shaffer, 2010).”
Socially
The health and mental and emotional states of law enforcement officers is a critical factor in the officer’s
ability to carryout their job related functions within the community and can drastically effect the wellbeing of society
as a whole. Job related stress can play a huge role in not only an officer’s life and well-being but also the overall well-
being of the community that the individual serves.

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