Energy management and audit

WHAT IS ENERGY?
• Definition: Energy is the capacity of a physical
system to perform work.
• Energy exists in several forms such as heat,
kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential
energy, electrical or other forms.
• According to the law of conservation of
energy, the total energy of a system remains
constant, though energy may transform into
another form.

TYPES OF ENERGY
• Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is energy that results from
movement or the location of an object. Mechanical energy is the sum of
Kinetic and Potential Energy.
• Thermal energy :Thermal energy or heat energy reflects the temperature
difference between two systems.
• Nuclear energy: Nuclear energy is energy resulting from changes in the
atomic nuclei or from nuclear.
• Chemical energy: Chemical energy results from chemical reactions
between atoms or molecules. There are different types of chemical
energy, such as electrochemical energy etc.
• Electromagnetic energy :Electromagnetic energy is energy from light or
electromagnetic waves.

Definition & Objectives of Energy
Management
• The fundamental goal of energy management is
to produce goods and provide services with the
least cost and least environmental effect.
• “The judicious and effective use of energy to
maximize profits (minimize costs) and enhance
competitive positions”
• “The strategy of adjusting and optimizing
energy, using systems and procedures so as to
reduce energy requirements per unit of output
while holding constant or reducing total costs of
producing the output from these systems”

The objective of Energy Management is
 To achieve and maintain optimum energy
procurement and utilization, throughout the
organization
 To minimize energy costs / waste without
affecting production & quality
 To minimize environmental effects.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STEPS
Step l - Good housekeeping
• Energy conservation efforts, made without much
equipment investment, include elimination of the
minor waste, review of the operation standards
in the production line.
• For example, such efforts include management to
prevent unnecessary lighting of the electric
lamps and idle operation of the motors, repair
of steam leakage, and reinforcement of heat
insulations.

Step 2 - Equipment improvement
• This is the phase of improving the energy
efficiency of the equipment by minor
modification of the existing production line to
provide waste heat recovery equipment and
gas pressure recovery equipment or by
introduction of efficient energy conservation
equipment, including replacement by
advanced equipment.

Step 3 - Process improvement
• This is intended to reduce energy
consumption by substantial modification of
the production process itself by technological
development.
• This is accompanied by a large equipment
investment and linked to modernization of the
process aimed at energy conservation, high
quality, higher added value, improved product
yield and manpower saving.

• The following 5 points show the necessary energy for
production.
(1) The energy required for a process and its service : Loss of
Product energy loss
(2) The energy required for containers and equipment : Loss
of Equipment energy
(3) Energy lost due to control : Loss of Control energy
(4) Energy lost due to energy conveyance and control : Loss of
Supply energy
(5) Loss due to the purchase and generation of energy : Loss
of Generation energy
The sum of these 5 losses is added up as the company’s fuel
expenses, electricity expenses and water expenses. This
table is called the “Energy Consumption Chart”,

• Energy management is the process of monitoring,
controlling, and conserving energy in a building or
organization or in processing steps.
• Energy management systems are also often commonly
used by individual commercial entities to monitor,
measure, and control their electrical building loads.
• Energy management systems can be used to centrally
control devices like HVAC(Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning) units and lighting systems across
multiple locations, such as retail, grocery and
restaurant sites.
• Energy management systems can also provide data
that allows them to make more informed decisions
about energy activities across their sites.

Energy conservation techniques in boilers
1. Waste heat recovery:
• Loss of thermal energy occurs in boilers. The waste gas
heat in the chimneys is particularly large, and it is
recovered by the installation of economizers in the
chimneys to preheat the feed water.
2.Combustion conditions:
• Fuel oil is sprayed into the furnace from the spray
nozzle of the burner tip.
• Therefore control of the diameter of the nozzle tip is
important, because if the diameter is increased by
20%, the spray particles can get bigger, and more
excess air is necessary for complete combustion;
• so periodical inspection and replacement are
adviseable.

• Steam leakage:
• Steam generated by a boiler is passed through
a pipe common to the adjacent boiler before
being sent to the factory, so even a boiler
which is not running is heated if there is a gate
valve water leak, which involves a loss.
• It is necessary to repair factory plumbing
leaks quickly.

Energy Management techniques in
Baking
• Formulation
• Use of proper equipment
• Critical control point
• Plant layout

Energy Management Planning Process
1.Appoint an energy manager or energy team or assign responsibilities
2. Define the goals of the analysis
3. Define the system boundaries
4. Collect data
5. Develop an Input-Output analysis and a flow chart
6. Set up the basis for the Energy Information System
7. Prepare a register of legislation
8. Develop and Energy Management Manual
9. Develop a communication strategy
10. Carry out an Internal Audit
11. Implement a review by top management Energy Management
Planning Process

• The basic objective of any Energy Management
System is to answer five simple questions:
How much energy is consumed
How is the energy consumed
Where is the energy consumed
When is the energy consumed
What is the quality of the energy consumed
In order to address these queries Energy Audits
are conducted. Lets understand audits -

Energy Audit: Types And
Methodology
• Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach
for decision-making in the area of energy
management.
• It attempts to balance the total energy inputs
with its use, and serves to identify all the energy
streams in a facility.
• It quantifies energy usage according to its
functions.
Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in
defining and pursuing comprehensive energy
management programme.

• As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001,
Energy Audit is defined as:
“The verification, monitoring and analysis of
use of energy including submission of
technical report containing recommendations
for improving energy efficiency with cost
benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce
energy consumption”.

Type of Energy Audit
The type of Energy Audit to be performed
depends on:
• Function and type of industry
• Depth to which final audit is needed, and
• Potential and magnitude of cost reduction
desired
Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the
following two types.
i) Preliminary Audit
ii) Detailed Audit

• Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise
to:
• Establish energy consumption in the organization
• Estimate the scope for saving
• Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for
attention
• Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost)
improvements/ savings
• Set a 'reference point'
• Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
• Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily
obtained data

Detailed Energy Audit Methodology
• A comprehensive audit provides a detailed
energy project implementation plan for a facility,
since it evaluates all major energy using systems.
• This type of audit offers the most accurate
estimate of energy savings and cost.
• It considers the interactive effects of all projects,
accounts for the energy use of all major
equipment, and includes detailed energy cost
saving calculations and project cost.

Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three
phases: Phase I, II and III.
• Phase I - Pre Audit Phase
• Phase II - Audit Phase
• Phase III - Post Audit Phase

Phase I –Pre Audit Phase
 Plan and organize
 Informal Interview with Energy Manager, Production /
Plant Manager
 Conduct of brief meeting / awareness programme with
all divisional heads and persons concerned

Phase II –Audit Phase
 Primary data gathering, Process Flow Diagram, & Energy
Utility Diagram
 Conduct survey and monitoring
 Conduct of detailed trials /experiments for selected
energy guzzlers
 Analysis of energy use
 Identification and development of Energy Conservation
(ENCON) opportunities
 Cost benefit analysis
 Reporting & Presentation to the Top Management

Phase III –Post Audit phase
Implementation and Follow-up

The information to be collected during the detailed audit
includes: -
1. Energy consumption by type of energy, by department, by major
items of process equipment, by end use
2. Material balance data (raw materials, intermediate and final
products, recycled materials, use of scrap or waste products,
production of by-products for re-use in other industries, etc.)
3. Energy cost
4. Process and material flow diagrams
5. Generation and distribution of site services (eg.compressed air,
steam).
6. Sources of energy supply (e.g. electricity from the grid or self-
generation)
7. Potential for fuel substitution, process modifications, and the use of
co-generation systems (combined heat and power generation).
8. Energy Management procedures and energy awareness training
programs within the establishment.

The audit team should collect the
following baseline data:
• Technology, processes used and equipment details
• Capacity utilisation
• Amount & type of input materials used
• Water consumption
• Fuel Consumption
• Electrical energy consumption
• Steam consumption
• Other inputs such as compressed air, cooling water etc
• Quantity & type of wastes generated
• Percentage rejection / reprocessing
• Efficiencies / yield

Energy Audit Instruments
• The requirement for an energy audit such as identification
and quantification of energy necessitates measurements;
these measurements require the use of instruments.
• These instruments must be portable, durable, easy to
operate and relatively inexpensive.
• The parameters generally monitored during energy audit
may include the following:
 Basic Electrical Parameters in AC &DC systems – Voltage
(V), Current (I), Power factor, Active power (kW), apparent
power (demand) (kVA), Reactive power, Energy
consumption (kWh), Frequency (Hz), Harmonics, etc.
 Parameters of importance other than electrical such as
temperature & heat flow, radiation, air and gas flow, liquid
flow, revolutions per minute (RPM), air velocity, noise and
vibration, dust concentration, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
pH, moisture content, relative humidity, flue gas analysis –
CO2, O2, CO, SOx, NOx, combustion efficiency etc.

A Guide for Conducting Energy Audit : Ten Steps Methodology for
Detailed Energy Audit

• Oceans contain a huge energy resource with
different origins that can be exploited,
contributing in a sustainable manner to meet
the increasing global energy demand.
• The most developed conversion systems refer
to tidal energy, thermal energy (OTEC), marine
currents and waves.

Conversion System
• The most developed conversion systems concern: tidal
energy, which results from the gravitational fields of
the moon and the sun;
• thermal energy (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion or
OTEC), resulting directly from solar radiation;
• marine currents, caused by thermal and salinity
differences in addition to tidal effects and
• ocean waves, generated by the action of the winds
blowing over the ocean surface.
• Other technologies, namely salinity gradient devices,
are at a much lower level of development and are not
considered herein.

TIDAL ENERGY
• Tidal energy is the first ocean energy technology
to have attained maturity probably due its
similarity to conventional hydropower plants.
• The tides are generated by the rotation of the
earth within the gravitational fields of the moon
and sun. The relative motions of these bodies
cause the surface of the oceans to be raised and
lowered periodically, according to a number of
interacting cycles

Economics and Environmental Impacts
• Tidal power incurs relatively high capital costs,
and construction times can be several years
for larger projects.
• Like most renewable sources of energy, tidal
energy is non-polluting and displaces fossil
fuels.
• A tidal barrage can provide protection against
coastal flooding within the basin during very
high tides.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
CONVERSION (OTEC)
• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses
the temperature difference between cooler deep
and warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run
a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in
the form of electricity.
• OTEC is a base load electricity generation system.
However, since the temperature differential is
small, the thermal efficiency is low, making its
economic feasibility a challenge.----Drawback

• OTEC can also supply quantities of cold water
as a by-product. This can be used for air
conditioning and refrigeration.
• Another by-product is fresh water distilled
from the sea.
• OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s
and the first bench size demonstration model
was constructed in 1926. Currently the world's
only operating OTEC plant is in Japan,
overseen by Saga University.

• OTEC, or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, is
an energy technology that converts solar
radiation to electric power.
• OTEC systems use the ocean's natural thermal
gradient—the fact that the ocean's layers of
water have different temperatures—to drive a
power-producing cycle.

Concept for OTEC
• It is well known that power can be generated
from two sources of heat at different
temperatures. The idea of using the cold deep
water of the ocean as the cold reservoir of a
thermal engine whose hot reservoir is the
warm surface water was proposed in France
by D´Arsonval in 1881.

Thermodynamic efficiency
• It is known from thermodynamics that the
maximum efficiency (i.e. the efficiency of the
Carnot cycle) of an heat engine operating
between the (absolute) temperature Tw of the
warm water and the temperature Tc of the
cold water is given by Thermal efficiency
(Carnot cycle )=1-TC/TW

How it works
• Carnot Efficiency (T1-T2)/T1: in transferring heat to
do work, the greater the spread in temperature
between the heat source and the heat sink, the
greater the efficiency of the energy conversion.
• As long as the temperature between the warm
surface water and the cold deep water differs by
about 20°C (36°F), an OTEC system can produce a
significant amount of power with a maximum
Carnot Efficiency of about 6.7%

• It is not too difficult to supply large flows of warm
water from the surface of the ocean, the same is
not true for the cold water which has to be
pumped from deep regions through a long duct
(700 to 800 metres for floating power plants and
1.5 km or more for a plant ).
• The temperature gradients in the ocean provide a
measure of the ocean thermal resource. In
tropical seas, the surface water temperature
usually lies between 24°C and 33°C, whereas the
temperature at depths of 500 to 1000m remains
between 3°C and 9°C.

• The Rankine cycle is the only practical
thermodynamic cycle that has been developed
for the ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).
• This is the cycle representing the thermodynamic
process taking place in a conventional thermal
power plant in which a liquid is evaporated,
expanded and then condensed.
• Two variants of the Rankine cycle have been
developed for OTEC applications.
1. open cycle
2. closed cycle

Open Cycle
• In the open cycle seawater is used as a “working
fluid”, the warm surface water being flash-
evaporated under a partial vacuum.
• The steam produced passes through and propels
a turbine, and is later cooled in a condenser using
cold seawater (4ºC - 7ºC) pumped from the deep
ocean, generally found at several hundred metres
depth.
• If a surface condenser is used, the output of the
condenser is desalinated water.

Open-cycle OTEC uses the tropical oceans' warm surface water
to make electricity. When warm seawater is placed in a low-
pressure container, it boils. The expanding steam drives a low-
pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The steam,
which has left its salt behind in the low-pressure container, is
almost pure fresh water. It is condensed back into a liquid by
exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water.

Close Cycle
• In the closed cycle a secondary working fluid such
as ammonia, propane or freon-type refrigerant is
vaporised and re-condensed continuously in a
closed loop to drive a turbine.
• Warm seawater is drawn from the sea surface
and pumped through heat exchangers where in
the secondary fluid is vaporised; this fluid then
expands and emerges as high- pressure vapour to
drive the turbine.

Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low-boiling point, such as
ammonia, to rotate a turbine to generate electricity. Here's how
it works. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat
exchanger where the low-boiling-point fluid is vaporized. The
expanding vapor turns the turbo-generator. Then, cold, deep
seawater—pumped through a second heat exchanger—
condenses the vapor back into a liquid, which is then recycled
through the system.

WHAT IS HYDRO POWER?
The objective of a hydropower scheme is to convert the
potential energy of water, flowing in a stream with a
certain fall to the turbine (termed the "head"), into electric
energy at the lower end of the scheme, where the powerhouse
is located. The power output from the scheme is proportional
to the flow and to the head.

HYDRO-POWER PLANT
• It plays very important role in the development
of country.
• It provides power at cheapest rate.
• About 20% of the total world power is
generated using hydro power plants.

Power Generation system.
 Thermal Power Generation system.
 Hydro electric Power Generation system.
 Nuclear Power Generation system.
 Diesel Power Generation system.
 Non conventional energy power Generation system.

Hydro electric power station.
TYPES OF HYDRO
ELECTRIC POWER
STATION.
PARTS OF HYDRO
ELECTRIC POWER
STATION.
HIGH HEAD
SCHEME.
MEDIUM HEAD
SCHEME.
LAW HEAD
SCHEME.
ADVANTAGES. DISADVANTAGES.
SITE SILECTION OF
HYDRO POWER
STATION.

Hydrologic Cycle
59
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Hydrology
• Meteorology
– Study of the atmosphere including
weather and climate.
• Surface water hydrology
– Flow and occurrence of
water on the surface
of the earth.
• Hydrogeology
– Flow and occurrence
of ground water.
Watersheds

Hydrology
• Hydrology may be defined as the science which deals with the
depletion and replenishment of water resources. It deals with
surface water as well as ground water. It is also concerned with
transportation of water from one place to another.
• MASS CURVE
• Mass curve is the graph of cumulative values of water quantity
against time.

• If we measure the rainfall and put it on a time graph and
link that to the amount of water in the river, we have some
really useful information!
• This graph is hydrograph. It plots rainfall against
discharge (that is the amount of water in the river as it
passes a particular point measured in cubic metres per
seconds or cumecs).
• Changes measured over time is river regime - eg. in
winter there is more rain, less evaporation, less vegetation
to absorb it.

WE CAN READ THE FOLLOWING FROM THE
HYDROGRAPH
• Rate of flow at any instant during the duration
period.
• Total volume of flow upto that instant as the
area under hydrograph denotes the volume of
water in that duration.
• The mean annual run-off.
• The minimum and maximum run-off for the
year.

Major Hydropower generating units
NAME STATE CAPACITY (MW)
BHAKRA PUNJAB 1100
NAGARJUNA ANDHRA PRADESH 960
KOYNA MAHARASHTRA 920
DEHAR HIMACHAL PRADESH 990
SHARAVATHY KARNATAKA 891
KALINADI KARNATAKA 810
SRISAILAM ANDHRA PRADESH 770

Major Hydropower Producers
• Canada, 341,312 GWh (66,954 MW installed)
• USA, 319,484 GWh (79,511 MW installed)
• Brazil, 285,603 GWh (57,517 MW installed)
• China, 204,300 GWh (65,000 MW installed)
• Russia, 173,500 GWh (44,700 MW installed)
• Norway, 121,824 GWh (27,528 MW installed)
• Japan, 84,500 GWh (27,229 MW installed)
• India, 82,237 GWh (22,083 MW installed)
• France, 77,500 GWh (25,335 MW installed)
65
“Hydroelectricity,” Wikipedia.org

DAM TURBINE
POWER HOUSE
INTAKE
GENERATOR
PENSTOCK
RESEVOIR
POWER LINE
TRANSFORMER

How Hydropower Works
 Water from the
reservoir flows due
to gravity to drive
the turbine.
 Turbine is
connected to a
generator.
 Power generated is
transmitted over
power lines.

How Hydropower Works
 A water turbine that convert the energy of
flowing or falling water into mechanical energy
that drives a generator, which generates electrical
power. This is a heart of hydropower power plant.
 A control mechanism to provide stable electrical
power. It is called governor.
 Electrical transmission line to deliver the power
to its destination.

Sizes of Hydropower Plants
• Large plants : capacity >30 MW
• Small Plants : capacity b/w 100 kW to 30 MW
• Micro Plants : capacity up to 100 kW

Classification of Hydro electric power station.
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HEAD.
A. High head plant ( < 300 m.)
B. Medium head plant. (60m to 300 m.)
C. Low head plant. ( > 60m.)
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON WATER CONDITION.
A. Flow of water plant.
B. Storage of water plant.
C. Pump storage water plant.

HYDRO POWER PLANT
• Head
– Water must fall from a higher elevation to a lower one to
release its stored energy.
– The difference between these elevations (the water levels in
the forebay and the tailbay) is called head.
• Dams: Are of three categories.
– high-head (800 or more feet)
– medium-head (100 to 800 feet)
– low-head (less than 100 feet)
• Power is proportional to the product of
head x flow
71
http://www.wapa.gov/crsp/info/harhydro.htm

Classification of Hydro electric power station.
• Classification based on operation.
A. Manual plant.
B. Automatic plant.
• Classification based on type of load.
A. Base load plant.
B. Peak load plant.

Element of Hydro power station,
1. Reservoir.
2. Catchments area.
3. Dam.
(a) Earthen dam.
(b) Masonry dam.
(c) Concrete dam.
4. Spill ways.
5. Screen.
6. Fore bay or Intake.

Element of Hydro power station,
7. Tunnel.
8. Penstock or pipe line.
9. Surge tank.
10. Draft tube.
11. Tail race.
12. Fish passes.
13. Turbine.

Working diagram Hydro electric power plant.

PENSTOCK &DRAFT TUBE
The movement of water can be used to make electricity. Energy
from water is created by the force of water moving from a higher
elevation to a lower elevation through a large pipe (penstock).
When the water reaches at the end of the pipe, it hits and spins the
water wheel or a turbine.
The turbine rotates the connected shaft, which then rotates the
generator, for making electricity.

PENSTOCK
“used for conveying water from the intake to the power
house”.
The water in the reservoir is considered as stored energy.
When the gate opens, the water flowing through the
penstock strikes the turbine.

Construction of penstock in hydro power station.

View of penstock in Hydropower station.

Function of surge tank
• Its function is to prevent sudden increase of pressure in the
supply line or in the penstock. It is placed as near as possible
to the turbine.
• Water hammer
• Due to the variation in the demand of water supply according
to load, the turbine gates get closed suddenly which cause
increase in pressure. This is known as water hammer.

TRASH RACK
Almost all small hydroelectric plants have a trash rack
cleaning machine, which removes all material from water
in order to avoid entering in plants intake water.

Spillway
• Function of spillway is to discharge the excess
amount of water during floods and keep the level
of water to the head of reservoir.
During the lifetime of a dam different flow
conditions will be experienced and a dam must be
able to safely accommodate high floods that can
exceed normal flow conditions in the river. For
this reason, carefully passages are corporated in
the dams as a part of structure. These passages are
known as spillways.

Classification of Hydro Turbines
• Reaction Turbines
– Derive power from pressure drop across turbine.
– Totally immersed in water.
– Angular & linear motion converted to shaft power.
– Propeller, Francis, and Kaplan turbines
• Impulse Turbines
– Convert kinetic energy of water jet hitting buckets.
– No pressure drop across turbines.
– Pelton, Turgo, and crossflow turbines

Hydro electric power plant.`
Medium head plant
Medium head plant

Top View of Francis turbine in Hydro
power station. `

Propeller turbine for low head plant.

Hydropower Calculations
HQP
HQgP




10
• P = power in kilowatts (kW)
• g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
•  = turbo-generator efficiency (0<n<1)
• Q = quantity of water flowing (m3/sec)
• H = effective head (m)

Selection of site for Hydro electric power
station.
1. sufficient quantity of water at a reasonable head should be
available.
2. The site should allow for strong foundations with minimum
cost.
3. There should be no possibility of future source of leakage of
water.
4. The selected site should be accessible easily.
5. There should be possibility of stream diversion during
construction period.
6. The reservoir to be constructed should have large catchments
area, so that the water in it should never fall below the
minimum level.

Advantage of Hydro power station.
1. The plant is simple in construction ,robust and required
low maintenance.
2. It can be put in the service instantly.
3. It can respond to changing loads without any difficulty.
4. There are no stand by losses.
5. The running charges are very small.
6. No fuels is burnt.
7. The plant is quite neat and clean.
8. The water after running the turbine can be used for
irrigation and other purpose.

Disadvantage of Hydro power station.
1. The capital cost of generators, civil engineering work etc is
high.
2. High cost of transmission lines.
3. Long dry seasons may effect the delivery of power.

Benefits…
• Environmental Benefits of Hydro power plant.
• No operational greenhouse gas emissions.
Non-environmental benefits
– flood control, irrigation, transportation, fisheries
and tourism.

Function of spillway is to discharge the excess amount of water
during floods and keep the level of water to the head of reservoir.
During the lifetime of a dam different flow conditions will be
experienced and a dam must be able to safely accommodate high
floods that can exceed normal flow conditions in the river. For this
reason, carefully passages are corporated in the dams as a part of
structure. These passages are known as spillways.
What is the function of Spill ways?

Dam Types
• Arch
• Gravity
• Buttress
• Embankment or Earth

Arch Dams
• Arch shape gives strength
• Less material (cheaper)
• Narrow sites
• Need strong abutments

Concrete Gravity Dams
• Weight holds dam in
place.
• Lots of concrete.
(expensive)

Buttress Dams
• Face is held up by a
series of supports.
• Flat or curved face.

Impulse Turbines
• Uses the velocity of the water to move the
runner and discharges to atmospheric pressure.
• The water stream hits each bucket on the runner.
• High head, low flow applications.
• Types : Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine

Impulse Turbines
• Uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and
discharges to atmospheric pressure.
• The water stream hits each bucket on the runner.
• No suction downside, water flows out through turbine housing
after hitting.
• High head, low flow applications.
• Types : Pelton wheel, Cross Flow

Reaction Turbines
• Combined action of pressure and moving
water.
• Runner placed directly in the water stream
flowing over the blades rather than striking
each individually.
• Lower head and higher flows than compared
with the impulse turbines.

Advantages of Chain Turbine
• It is run-of-river power plant.
• Do not worry about the turbidity of water.
• There is no danger of cavitations.
• It is simple to construct, repaired and
maintenance.

Disadvantages of Chain Turbine
• The slow rotation of chain turbine leads to
high speed ratios when connect to generator
at 600 rpm – 1500 rpm.
• This chain turbine operation is very noisy.
• Structure of turbine is very big.

Pelton Wheels
• Nozzles direct forceful
streams of water against
a series of spoon-shaped
buckets mounted around
the edge of a wheel.
• Each bucket reverses the
flow of water and this
impulse spins the turbine.

Pelton Wheels
• Suited for high head, low
flow sites.
• The largest units can be
up to 200 MW.
• Can operate with heads as
small as 15 meters and as
high as 1,800 meters.

Turbine Design Ranges
• Kaplan
• Francis
• Pelton
• Turgo
2 < H < 40
10 < H < 350
50 < H < 1300
50 < H < 250
(where H = head in
meters)

View of penstock &draft tube in Hydro power
plant.

• C o n s t r u c t i o n o f T u r b i n e .
I n l e t
O u t l e t
Impulse turbine for High head plant.

After passing through the turbine the water returns to
the river trough a short canal called a tailrace.
Tailraces:-

Disadvantages
• The loss of land under the reservoir.
• Interference with the transport of sediment by
the dam.
• Problems associated with the reservoir.
– Climatic and seismic effects.
– Impact on aquatic ecosystems, flora and
fauna.

Loss of land
• A large area is taken up in the form of a reservoir in
case of large dams.
• This leads to inundation of fertile alluvial rich soil in
the flood plains, forests and even mineral deposits
and the potential drowning of archeological sites.
• Power per area ratio is evaluated to quantify this
impact. Usually ratios lesser than 5 KW per hectare
implies that the plant needs more land area than
competing renewable resources. However this is only
an empirical relation.

Effects
• Capture of sediment decreases the fertility downstream as a
long term effect.
• It also leads to deprivation of sand to beaches in coastal
areas.
• If the water is diverted out of the basin, there might be salt
water intrusion into the inland from the ocean, as the
previous balance between this salt water and upstream fresh
water in altered.
• It may lead to changes in the ecology of the estuary area and
lead to decrease in agricultural productivity.

Climatic and Seismic effects
• It is believed that large reservoirs induce have the
potential to induce earthquakes.
• In tropics, existence of man-made lakes
decreases the convective activity and reduces
cloud cover. In temperate regions, fog forms
over the lake and along the shores when the
temperature falls to zero and thus increases
humidity in the nearby area.

Main pollutants from a power system
• Non –toxic dust
• Sulphurous anhydride
• Carbon monoxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Soot (fly ash)
• Hydrogen sulphide
• Pollution can be define as the contamination of soil, air and
water with undesirable amount of material and heat.

• Acid rain; the rain which contain acid as its constituents,
brings all the acid down from high above the environment.
• Contaminant; it is the another name of pollution. It is
undesirable substances which may be physical, chemical or
biological.
• Pollutant; these are undesirable substances present in the
environment these can be NO2, SO2, CO2,smoke,salt, bacteria.

Advantages of combined operation of plants
• Greater reliability of supply to the consumers.
• Avoid complete shut down.
• The overall cost of energy per unit of an interconnected system
is less.
• There is a more effective use of transmission line facilities.
• Less capital investment required.
• Less expenses on supervision, operation and maintenance.

• Due to limited generating capacity diesel power stations
• is not suitable for base load plants.
• Nuclear power stations is not suitable for peak load plants.
• Incremental rate curve shows that as output power
increases, cost of plant also increases.

Various types of tariffs
• Flat rate tariff; by estimating load factor and diversity factor
for various uses of electricity, we may merge the equitable
contributation to the fixed charge of a particular class of
consumers with each KWH consumption, the resultant tariff is
a Flat rate tariff .
• Two part tariff; total charge is split into two components i.e. a
fixed charge depend upon the maximum demand and a
variable charge based upon the energy consumption.

• Block rate tariff; using this tariff, the fixed charge is merged
into the unit charge for one or two blocks of consumption, all
units in excess being charged at low unit rate.
• Maximum demand tariff; these tariff differ from two part
tariff only in the sense that maximum demand is actually
measured by a demand indicator instead of assessing it merely
on the bases of ratable value.
• Power factor tariff; power factor tariffs are devised to make a
distinction between overall charge per unit to be recovered
from two types of consumers, one having a good power factor
and the other having a poor power factor.

• Wind power plants is least reliable, and hydro power plants
are most reliable.
• The power output from hydro power plant depends on
discharge, head and system efficiency.
• The power output from hydro power plant in KW is given by
0.736Qwhή/75
• In hydro power plant the operating cost is low but the initial
cost is high.
• Gross head of an hydro power station is the difference of water
level between in the storage and tail race.

• The flow duration curve at a given head of hydro power plant
is used to determine total power available at the site.
• The draft tube is provided to increase the acting head on the
water wheel.
• For low head power plants kaplan turbines are used.
• For high head and low discharge power plants pelton wheel
turbines are used.
• The specific speed (Ns) of a turbine is given by Ns=N√P/H
1.25
• The specific speed (Ns) of a turbine is the speed at which the
turbine develops unit horse power at unit head.

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