1. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

2. INNATIST VIEW AND
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR THEORY (CHOMSKY)
Language Acquisition
Device
(LAD)
Human capacity for learning L1- all babies
born with same language universals “hardwired” in the brain
Parameter- (Re) Setting
Child‟s brain “selects” form of each universal
feature (parameter) that corresponds to his or
her L1 group. Must reset L1 parameters to
those of the new language.
*Critical Period Hypothesis
(hard to find evidence as
most exposed to language)
Innate language learning ability decreases or
disappears after a certain age (some say 12yrs
some younger/older)
-Victor
-Genie
- ASL
*applied to L1. . . Not sure
about its applicability to L2

3. KRASHEN‟S 5 HYPOTHESES (L2)
Acquisition-Learning
Hypothesis
Acquisition refers to unconscious development of language
through exposure (similar to L1 learning).
Learning refers to conscious effort to develop language through
study and practice- learning results in conscious knowledge.
Monitor Hypothesis
“Monitor” is similar to an editor in the brain which adjusts and corrects
our utterances before we speak. Need time and knowledge of rules for
this to work. Correct production is important.
Natural Order Hypothesis
Second language is acquired in a predictable sequence, but not
necessarily “easiest” to “hardest”. . She run(s)
Affective Filter- explains
various rates of acquisition
Made up of people’s feelings (affective realm) about language learning
and determines whether they acquire the language when they have
the opportunity- input does not become “in-take”
Input Hypothesis
i + 1 (comprehensible input). . . “i” is where the learner is
currently and the “+1” is the information that is new (graduated
information). . . .

4. CAH- CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS
LANGUAGE LEARNING MEANT OVERCOMING THE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 AND TL*




Rooted in behaviorist (language as the sum of all the little
parts) and structuralist approaches
Claimed that the interference from the L1 was the primary
barrier for TL and
Prediction of difficulties for TL learners if the two
languages were contrasted
In areas where there was no interference, then (positive)
transfer could take place

5. CAH TO CLI
(CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE)

Limitations:
- Oversimplification
- Difficult to determine which category items
were to fit into
- Predictions were hard to verify
- Ronald Wardhaugh labeled the former as the
“strong version” and questioned the ability to
truly contrast languages (knowledge and
(scientific data gathering issue)

6. FOSSILIZATION OR STABILIZATION


Fossilization- normal and natural, but was once
thought of as the permanent learning of an error
Stabilization- another term with a stronger focus
on the moment with the possibility of further
development

7. FOREIGNER TALK- WHAT NATIVE
SPEAKERS DO. . .
Variety of language used by native speakers to
non-native speakers
 Similar to “baby talk”- simplified speech
 Fewer contractions
 Longer pauses
 Often volume gets. . . .loudER


Studied by Charles Ferguson in 1975

8. LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS- ASSUMPTION MADE
THAT THERE IS ACQUISITION OF ONE LANGUAGE
Young Learners
Lack cognitive and
metalinguistic
awareness
 Suggested innate
language acquisition
ability (critical period
hypothesis)
 Attitudinal and
cultural opennessrisk takers (individual
dependent)

Older Learners
More extensive
thinking about
language
 Innate ability
lessened, rely on
problem solving and
metalinguistic ability
 Often more inhibited
by new language and
fear of mistakes


9. LEARNING CONDITIONS DIFFER
Young learner




Often allowed silent period
until ready to speak
Practice in a fun and safe
way: song, games, play
Exposure in school for
hours (casual and formal)
Errors MAY be corrected
more often . . . Or
remodeled
Older learner




Forced to speak – real world
or classroom
Practice is not as “safe” when
in the real world (doctor
visits, grocery shopping, oil
change)
Limited to the classroom in
many cases- limited range of
the language
Errors often overlooked-hard
to correct from adult to adult
in non-academic settings

10. ATTITUDES AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

What was the best combination of attitudes
when it came to language learning?
Positive attitudes toward self
 Positive attitude toward native language
 Positive attitude toward target language group


How can we encourage all three in the
mainstream classroom, the ELL classroom, and
in the school as a whole?

11. SECOND CULTURE ACQUISITION
Acculturation vs Assimilation
How do you feel about this?

Culture shock- Often happens when a person comes into contact
with another culture
- Can be mild both physically and psychologically
- Can manifest in deeper psychological states of
panic and distress

12. CULTURE SHOCK


EDWARD HALL (1959)
Stage 1- “Honeymoon” like a dream come true,
adventure, exciting, people are willing to “help out”
because you are new
Stage 2- Culture Shock- often need company of other
nationals (ex-pats), complaining about host country


Physical ailments, bowels & stomach upset, tired, can‟t
concentrate, change in sleep (more or less), eating changes
Psychological- foot in both worlds, worry about ability to
perform, homesickness

13. CULTURE SHOCK. . .


Stage 3- “Culture Stress” some issues are
resolved and some are not (others split this into
Initial Adjustment where one finds their
“role”, begins to feel connected and self-confident
and Mental Isolation-angry at host
culture, resent the loss of status, selfdoubt, worry, fear of being left behind at
home, disappointment in self)
Stage 4- Acceptance and Integration where one
stops comparing the home and host
culture, adapts or assimilates, self-confident

14. ANOMIEFeelings of social uncertainty or dissatisfaction,
relationship between language learning and
attitude toward foreign culture (Lambert, 1967)
 First symptoms of early third stage progression
of acculturation
 Feeling of homelessness, not rooted anywhere
 When language has finally been “mastered”
 Can lead to regression in stages


15. MISTAKES AND ERRORS
HARD TO TELL THE DIFFERENCE IN MANY CASES
Mistakes

Performance error
◦
◦



Random guess
Forget to use known
system correctly
Common to both NS
and NNS
NS often recognize
them and correct them
NNS can also selfcorrect when they are
aware (or made aware)
of the misuse
Errors
Reflects competence of
the speaker
 NS- deviation from
adult grammar
 Consistent incorrect
use
 Self-correction is not a
skill


This is questionable
unless observed

16. SIGNIFICANCE OF ERRORS

Look at production data to find out production
competence--- Where else do we do this in education?

“Correct” speech and written work shows us what
students have already acquired in the TL
Determine if they are:
 Local errors- meaning is clear, interruption of
utterance may shutdown speaker
 Global errors- meaning is unclear and may need
more immediate attention
We must look at errors and/or mistakes to get
information about the learners‟ linguistic system

17. ERROR ANALYSIS
-DIFFERENT FROM CAH IN THAT IT LOOKS AT ALL
POSSIBLE SOURCES, NOT JUST NEGATIVE TRANSFER FROM
L1
Making
mistakes
Adjusting
and making
new
attempts
for success
Obtaining
feedback

18. TYPES OF FEEDBACK
Recasts
Clarification Requests
Metalinguistic Feedback
Elicitation
Explicit Correction
Repetition

19. RESPONSES TO FEEDBACK

Uptake- student reaction/utterance to the
teacher‟s feedback
S: [to another student] What means this word?
T: Uh, Luis, how do we say that in English? What
does . . . ?
S: Ah, what does this word mean?
Repair- when the learner corrects, either selfrepair or peer-repair
Repetition- repetition of correct form after teacher
feedback

20. RECASTS
Restate the whole utterance minus the error. Often a
reformulation or expansion of the utterance. Recasts
are not explicit.
S: I lost my road.
T: Oh, yeah, I see, you lost your way. And then what
happened?
S1: Why you don‟t like Marc?
T: Why don‟t you like Marc?
S2: I don‟t know, I don‟t like him.
(no “uptake” or immediate response from the student)

21. CLARIFICATION REQUESTS
Indication that the utterance has been misunderstood by the
teacher or that the utterance is incorrect. . . Usually
suggests a repetition or reformulation by the student.
S: I want practice today, today. (grammatical error)
T: I‟m sorry? (clarification request)
T: How often do you wash the dishes?
S: Fourteen
T: Excuse me. (Clarification request)
S: Fourteen
T: Fourteen what? (Clarification request)
S: Fourteen for a week.
T: Fourteen times a week? (Recast)
S: Yes. Lunch and dinner.

22. METALINGUISTIC FEEDBACK
Comments, information, or questions related to the
correctness of the student‟s utterance without
providing the correction- also some terms used here
S: I am here since January.
T: Well, okay, but remember we talked about the
present perfect tense?
S: We look at the people yesterday.
T: What‟s the ending we put on verbs when we talk
about the past?
S: e-d

23. ELICITATION
3 techniques to directly elicit the correct form
- Teacher elicits completion of their response (It‟s a. . . )
- Questions to elicit correct forms (How do we say ___
in English?)
- Ask students to reformulate their utterance
S: [to another student] What means this word?
T: Uh, Luis, how do we say that in English? What does
...?
S: Ah, what does this word mean?
S: My father cleans the plate.
T: Excuse me, he cleans the???
S: Plates?

24. ELICITATION
3 techniques to directly elicit the correct form
- Teacher elicits completion of their response (It‟s a. . . )
- Questions to elicit correct forms (How do we say ___
in English?)
- Ask students to reformulate their utterance
S: [to another student] What means this word?
T: Uh, Luis, how do we say that in English? What does
...?
S: Ah, what does this word mean?
S: My father cleans the plate.
T: Excuse me, he cleans the???
S: Plates?

25. EXPLICIT CORRECTION
Clearly indicate that what was said was incorrect
with provision of a corrected form.
S: When I have 12 years old. . .
T: No, not have. You mean, “when I was 12 years
old. . . “
S:
The dog run fastly.
T:
„Fastly‟ doesn‟t exist. „Fast‟ does not take-ly.
That‟s why I picked „quickly‟.

26. REPETITION
Teacher repeats errors from student‟s speech with
intonation patterns to mark errors
S: When I have 12 years old. . .
T: When I was 12 years old. . .
S: He‟s in the bathroom.
T: He‟s in the bedroom.
Repetition with metalinguistic comment
S: We is. . .
T: We is? But it‟s two people, right? You see your
mistake? You see the error? When it‟s plural it‟s „we
are‟.

27. EFFECTIVENESS OF FFI
1.
Are some types of FFI more beneficial than others?
- Learners must notice the form and the tie from feedback
to form, as well as quality of uptake
2.
Is there an optimal time to provide FFI?
- Still questions surrounding an optimal time to provide
feedback: before, during, after?
3.
Are particular linguistic features more affected by FFI?
- impossible to answer, too many variables such as
linguistic features and context of learning
4.
Does frequency of input/exposure make a difference?
- yes, but they must be meaningful exchanges
5.
Do particular students benefit more from FFI?
- generally a left-brain, field-independent, analytic, learner
will benefit a bit more, as will “Js” and “Ts” from MyersBriggs

28. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) are
language skills needed in social situations. It is the dayto-day language needed to interact socially with other
people. English language learners (ELLs) employ BIC
skills when they are on the playground, in the
lunchroom, on the school bus, at parties, playing sports
and talking on the telephone. Social interactions are
usually context embedded. They occur in a meaningful
social context. They are not very demanding cognitively.
The language required is not specialized. These
language skills usually develop within six months to two
years after arrival in the U.S.
Problems arise when teachers and administrators
think that a child is proficient in a language when
they demonstrate good social English.

29. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
Formal academic learning : listening, speaking, reading, and
writing subject area content.
Students need time and support to become proficient in
academic areas: five to seven years.
Recent research (Thomas & Collier, 1995) has shown that if
a child has no prior schooling or has no support in native
language development, it may take seven to ten years for
ELLs to catch up to their peers.
Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding
of content area vocabulary. It includes skills such as
comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and
inferring.
Academic language tasks more difficult and context
reduced.
The language also becomes more cognitively demanding.
New ideas, concepts and language are presented to the
students at the same time.

30. ESL STANDARDS FOR PRE-K-12 STUDENTS
Goal
Standards
1: Use English to
communicate in social
settings
Students will:
1. Use English to participate in social interaction
2. Interact in, through, & with spoken & written
English for personal expression and enjoyment
3. Use learning strategies to extend their
communicative competence
2: To use English to
achieve academically in
all content areas
1. Use English to interact in the classroom
2. Use English to obtain, process, construct, & provide
subject matter information in spoken & written form
3. Use appropriate learning strategies to construct &
apply academic knowledge
3: To use English in
socially & culturally
appropriate ways
1. Use the appropriate language variety, register, &
genre according to audience, purpose, & setting
2. Use nonverbal communication appropriate to
audience, purpose, & setting
3. Use appropriate learning strategies to extend their
sociolinguistic & sociocultural competence

31. 5 STAGES OF SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION





Pre-production (No English)- new learners of English
with up to 500 known words, the silent period
Early production (Receptive English Only)- can
speak one or two word phrases, have about 1000
known words
Speech Emergence (Survival English)- can
communicate with simple phrases and sentences,
have about 3,000 known words
Intermediate Fluency- beginning to use more complex
sentences and are willing to express opinions and
share thoughts, about 6,000 known words
Advanced Fluency (Proficient English)-near native in
their language skills, takes 4-10 years

32. FACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Motivation
 First language development
 Language distance and attitude
 Access to language
 Age
 Personality and learning style
 Peers and role models
 Quality of instruction
 Cultural background


*-schema
Copyright 2002, Center for Applied Linguistice

33. DIFFERENCES B/T MAINSTREAM AMERICAN
TEACHERS‟ EXPECTATIONS AND IMMIGRANT
PARENTS‟ EXPECTATIONS
Mainstream American
Teachers’ Expectations







Students participate in
classroom
activities/discussions
Creativity is valued
Learning through inquiry
and debate
One does their own work
Reading is a way of
discovering
Children should state their
opinions even when they
contradict the teacher‟s
Students need to ask
questions
Language Minority
Parents’ Expectations







Students should be quiet and
obedient, observing more than
participating
Students should be told what to
do
Students learn through
memorization and observation
Students should help one
another
Reading is the decoding of
information and facts
Teachers are not to be
challenged
Students should not ask a lot of
questions

34. CULTURAL VIEWS
U.S. Born English
Language Learners
Foreign Born English
Language Learners
U.S. born students
generally have a more
realistic view of the
United States.
U.S. born students
generally are more
aware of U.S. history,
customs, and traditions.
U.S. born students often
perceive their own
cultural differences as
negative.
Foreign born students
generally have an idealized
view of the United States.
Unless they have had an
opportunity to study U.S.
history and culture before
arriving, most foreign born
students are not aware of its
history, customs, and
traditions.
In general, foreign born
students experience their
own differences as positive.

35. DIFFERENCES IN READING BETWEEN NATIVE SPEAKERS AND
ESL LEARNERS. . . SEEN IN OTHER AREAS AS WELL
NS
NNS
Samples print, picks
out key words
 Can make predictions
based on what was
read
 Tests each prediction
 Confirms or rejects
each prediction
 Corrects when
necessary






May not be familiar with
the print symbols, not able
to pick key words
Insufficient background,
cultural, or linguistic
knowledge to notice cues
May not be able to tell
what sounds like English
or what makes sense
May be unable to confirm
or confirms incorrectly
May not recognize a
miscue or how to correct it

36. Learning Strategies used by
L2 Learners
METACOGNITIVE
“
executive”
function
Self-monitor
production/comp
(similar to teaching
reading)
Thinking about
learning while it
is taking place
COGNITIVE
Specific
learning tasks
SOCIOAFFECTIVE
Social
interaction &
mediation of the
material
Interacting with
others
Evaluate after
learning event
Direct involvement
of material (things
we do with items to
be learned)
Some
communication
strategies

37. EFFECTIVENESS OF STRATEGY USE
Learning strategies use listening and reading skills:
- skills most effective for listening
- monitoring, elaboration, inferencing (hard to teach-my bias)
We can teach these:
attention to keywords, how to use graphic organizers ,
inferencing from context, prediction, use a worksheet, taking
notes,
In Reading, we can teach:
bottom-up (part to whole) and top-down (whole to part)
processing, predicting, guessing from context, brainstorming,
summarizing
*Gender has shown to make a difference in both learning and
communication strategy use also based on cultural norms

38. SEVERAL TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
EXCHANGES
1. Message is sent. . . Message is not received
2. Message is sent. . . . . .Message is received and
misunderstood
3. Message is sent. . . Message is received and
understood
What do speakers, L2 learners, do to make sure
“good” communication is achieved?

39. COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES


Use of both verbal and nonverbal practices for
productive communication
Idea went from compensatory to strategic
competence. . . Learners using what they are
learning for better communication
Question- Are these consciously employed?

40. DOERNYEI‟S COMMUNICATION
STRATEGIES (1995)
Avoidance
 Syntactic or Lexical (verwohnt, gewohnt )
 Phonological (can‟t say it - St. Poelten- die Stadt
wo deine Mama arbeitet)
 Topic




Change subject
Pretend not to understand
Just does not respond
Completely abandon the topic

41. COMPENSATORY STRATEGIES
(STILL FROM DOERNYEI)

BROWN. . . NOT EXHAUSTIVE LIST
Prefabricated patterns


LIST ON P.138 IN
Standard “tourist” phrases
Code-switching
Can be early on in language learning
 Used to fill in missing information

**sometimes not compensatory strategy (see next
slide)

Appeal to authority

Simply ask for help either verbally or nonverbally

42. CODE-SWITCHING

(WARDHAUGH)
Code switching is a conversational technique used to
establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create
evoke or change interpersonal relationships with
their rights and obligations.
How do we decide how to speak?
 Hmong or English
 Level of Formality

Use of code switching allows me to demonstrate how
close I am to either a person or topic.

The ability to speak appropriately is indicative of
shared background assumptions.

43. THREE CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION *THINK ABOUT
HOW AN L2 LEARNER HAS TO DISSEMINATE THE MEANING
OF THESE WHICH ARE CULTURALLY BASED*
1.
“Verbal” Language
- grammar
- vocabulary
- pronunciation
- reading
- writing

44. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION CON‟T
2. Paralanguage
(Hymes‟(1974) ethnographic framework “K”- key
from SPEAKING acronym)
- speed
- voice intonation
- intensity
- silence
- stress

45. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION CON‟T
3. Nonverbal Language
- gestures
- posture
- facial expressions
- eye contact
- space
- dress

46. HYMES‟ SPEAKING
S- Setting such as time of day and location, Scene is the abstract
psychological setting/cultural definition (holiday party among
family, holiday party at the office, State of the Union Address)
P- Participants, speaker-listener, addressor-addressee, senderreceiver
E- Ends, recognized and expected outcomes of the exchange (trial in
the courtroom, but depends on which person you are: judge,
defense lawyer, juror, plaintiff, accused)
A-Act Sequence, form and content of message, exact words, how they
are used, relationship to the topic (lecture, party chit-chat,
meeting)
K- Key, tone or manner in which the message is conveyed,
also nonverbals (gesture, posture)
I-Instrumentalities, channel or medium chosen (oral, written,
dialect, register, code)
N-Norms of interaction and interpretation (loudness, silence, gaze
return)
G- Genre, type of utterance such as a poem, riddle, sermon, lecture,

47. MORE FACTORS



Inhibition related to ambiguity tolerance, and
vulnerability defenses to protect the ego
Often increases as one matures
Language Ego (Guiora et al., 1972a)
Identity shift, or change to the identity with L2
 Study on effects of valium resulted in showing importance
of the tester (teacher?)


Thin (permeable) and thick (not as permeable)
language ego studies (impact L2 acquisitionopenness, vulnerability, ambiguity tolerance) (Ehrman,
1999,1993)

Language classrooms have worked to create settings
in which inhibitions are lowered and mistakes seen as
less threatening both internally and externally

48. RISK TAKING
RELATED TO IMPULSIVITY AND MAKING INTELLIGENT GUESSES FROM
Be willing to guess and be wrong. . . But
controlled and in moderate doses (Beebe, 1983)
 Accurate guesser (Rubin & Thompson, 1994)
 Can be impacted by one‟s resilience. . . Higher
global self-esteem perhaps (Beebe, 1983)



Can this lead to fossilization, relatively
permanent incorrect patterns?
Teachers- tone down the risk-takers (blurters, we
all have them) and make space for those who are
not risk takers

49. ANXIETY


Tension, anxiety, uneasiness
Several levels of anxiety- which it is (language anxiety is
what we are focusing on)



Trait anxiety-more permanent (it is a trait)
State anxiety- related to an event or act
Three components of foreign language anxiety (often with
negative impact)
1. communication apprehension (inability to express mature thoughts
and ideas)
 2. fear of negative social evaluation (how one is viewed by others)
 3. test anxiety


Two distinctions relating to anxiety 1)debilitative (dysphoricdetrimental) 2)facilitative (euphoric-beneficial)

** anxiety is reinforced by self-efficacy and attributionteachers must modify their practice to accommodate

50. MORE CONCEPTS TO THINK ABOUT. . .

Teachers‟ Questions in ESL classrooms




Display questions (information)
Referential (genuine) questions
Scaffolding (when a more knowledgeable speaker provides
assistance to a less knowledgeable speaker)
- Gradual release model
Open and Closed Questions

Open-ended thought to produce explanations which lead to
more complex language



Greater quantity of output
Greater quality of output
Wait Time


Little more than 1 or 2 seconds before moving to another
student
Repeat or paraphrase before waiting silently

51. •Errors: errors on either the teacher’s language or the student’s language
•Feedback on errors: when errors are present, is there feedback and from whom?
•Genuine questions: do teachers and students ask questions to which the answer is
unknown in advance?
•Display questions: do teachers ask questions that they know the answers to in order to
allow students the ability to display their knowledge?
•Negotiation of meaning: do teachers and students work to understand what the others
are saying?
•Metalinguistic comments: do the teachers and students talk about language, in addition
to using it to transmit information?
Teacher
Errors
Feedback on
errors
Genuine
questions
Display questions
Negotiation of
meaning
Metalinguistic
comments
Student
Student-Student

52. GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNERS:
14 CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED FROM RUBIN(RUBIN & THOMPSON, 1982)
*SNOWBALL FIGHT ACTIVITY*

Find their own way, taking charge of their learning

Organize information about language



Are creative, developing a “feel” for the language by
experimenting with its grammar and words
Make their own opportunities for practice in using the
language inside and outside the classroom
Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered
and by continuing to talk or listen without
understanding every word

53. CON‟T





Use mnemonics and other memory strategies to
recall what has been learned
Make errors work for them and not against them
Use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of
their first language, in learning a second
language
Use contextual cues to help them in
comprehension
Learn to make intelligent guesses

54. CON‟T




Learn chunks of language as wholes and
formalized routines to help them perform
“beyond their competence”
Learn certain tricks that help to keep
conversations going
Learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps
in their own competence
Learn different styles of speech and writing and
learn to vary their language according to the
formality of the situation

55. WHAT FOUR THINGS I HOPE YOU
REMEMBER . . .
1. Encourage first language development.
2. Know your own attitudes and beliefs about
language learners in general. They will come
through in your lessons.
3. Take a second and third look at the whole
student, not just their language ability.
4. “It depends”