Module v Environmental Sanitation

Online Lecture- 19
Environmental Sanitation
Module V
WasteWater Treatments

Contents
• Environmental Sanitation :Communicable diseases, Methods
of communication, Diseases communicated by discharges of
intestines, nose and throat, other communicable diseases and
their control
• Insects and Rodent Control-Mosquitoes, life cycles, factors of
diseases control methods - natural &chemical, Fly control
methods and fly breeding prevention, Rodents and public
health, plague control methods, engineering and bio-control
methods

Communicable disease
• A communicable disease is one that is spread from one person to
another through a variety of ways that include: contact with blood and
bodily fluids; breathing in an airborne virus; or by being bitten by an
insect.
• Reporting of cases of communicable disease is important in the
planning and evaluation of disease prevention and control programs,
in the assurance of appropriate medical therapy, and in the detection
of common-source outbreaks.
• Some examples of the reportable communicable diseases include
Hepatitis A, B & C, influenza, measles, and salmonella and other food
borne illnesses.
• COVID19

Spread of communicable disease
• How these diseases spread depends on the specific
disease or infectious agent. Some ways in which
communicable diseases spread are by:
1. Physical contact with an infected person, such as
through touch (staphylococcus), sexual intercourse
(HIV), fecal/oral transmission (hepatitis A), or droplets
(influenza, TB, COVID19)

2. contact with a contaminated surface or object
(Norwalk virus), food (salmonella, E. coli), blood
(HIV, hepatitis B), or water (cholera);
3. bites from insects or animals capable of
transmitting the disease (mosquito: malaria and
yellow fever; flea: plague); and
4. travel through the air, such as tuberculosis or
measles.

Prevention of Communicable Diseases
I Immunizations are important to protect you from diseases
W Wash your hands often with soap and water.
H Home is where you stay when you are sick.
A
Avoid touching your eyes, nose, and mouth –especially when you are
sick.
C Cover your coughs and sneezes so you do not spread germs to others.
K Keep your distance from sick people so you don’t get sick too.
I Whack Germs Concept
Try this fun way of remembering the most important steps to staying well.

Chain of Disease Transmission
• Infectious agent is the pathogen (germ) that causes
diseases
• Reservoir includes places in the environment where the
pathogen lives (this includes people, animals and insects,
medical equipment, and soil and water)
• Portal of exit is the way the infectious agent leaves the
reservoir (through open wounds, aerosols, and splatter of
body fluids including coughing, sneezing, and saliva)

• Mode of transmission is the way the infectious agent can
be passed on (through direct or indirect contact, ingestion,
or inhalation)
• Portal of entry is the way the infectious agent can enter a
new host (through broken skin, the respiratory tract,
mucous membranes, and catheters and tubes)
• Susceptible host can be any person (the most vulnerable
of whom are receiving healthcare, are
immunocompromised, or have invasive medical devices
including lines, devices, and airways)

ORAL-FECAL TRANSMITTED DISEASES

• What the diseases in this group have in common is that the
causative organisms are excreted in the stools of infected
persons (or, rarely, animals).
• The portal of entry for these diseases is the mouth.
• Therefore, the causative organisms have to pass through the
environment from the feces of an infected person to the gastro-
intestinal tract of a susceptible person.
• This is known as the fece-oral transmission route.
• Oral-oral transmission occurs mostly through unapparent fecal
contamination of food, water and hands.

1. Typhoid fever
• Definition
✓A systemic infectious disease characterized by high continuous fever,
malaise and involvement of lymphoid tissues.
• Infectious agent
✓Salmonella typhi
✓Salmonella enteritidis (rare cause)
• Occurrence-
✓It occurs worldwide, particularly in poor socioeconomic areas.
✓ Annual incidence is estimated at about 17 million cases with
approximately 600,000 deaths worldwide.
✓In endemic areas the disease is most common in preschool and school
aged children (5-19 years of age).

• Reservoir
✓Humans
• Mode of transmission
✓ By water and food contaminated by feces and urine of patients and
carriers.
✓Flies may infect foods in which the organisms then multiply to
achieve an infective dose.
• Incubation period
✓1-3 weeks
• Treatment
1. Ampicillin or co-trimoxazole for carriers and mild cases.
2. Chloramphenicol or ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone for seriously ill
patients.

• Prevention and control
1. Treatment of patients and carriers
2. Education on handwashing, particularly food handlers, patients and
childcare givers
3. Sanitary disposal of feces and control of flies.
4. Provision of safe and adequate water
5. Safe handling of food.
6. Exclusion of typhoid carriers and patients from handling of food and
patients
7. Immunization for people at special risk (e.g. Travelers to endemic
areas)
8. Regular check-up of food handlers in food and drinking establishments

2. Dysentery
• Definition
✓ An acute bacterial disease involving the large and distal small intestine, caused by
the bacteria of the genus shigella.
Shigella is comprised of four species or serotypes.
1. Group A= Shigella dysentraie (most common cause)
2. Group B= Shigella flexneri
3. Group C= Shigella boydii
4. Group D= Shigella sonnei
• Occurrence
✓ It occurs worldwide, and is endemic in both tropical and temperate climates.
✓ Outbreaks commonly occur under conditions of crowding and where personal
hygiene is poor, such as in jails, institutions for children, day care centers, mental
hospitals and refugee camps.

• Reservoir- Humans
• Mode of transmission-
✓Mainly by direct or indirect fecal-oral transmission from a patient or
carrier.
✓Transmission through water and milk may occur as a result of direct fecal
contamination.
✓Flies can transfer organisms from latrines to a non-refrigerated food item
in which organisms can survive and multiply.
• Incubation period- 12 hours-4 days (usually 1-3 days).
• Treatment
1. Fluid and electrolyte replacement
2. Co-trimoxazole in severe cases or Nalidixic acid in the case of resistance.

1. Detection of carriers and treatment of the sick will
interrupt an epidemic.
2. Handwashing after toilet and before handling or eating
food.
3. Proper excreta disposal especially from patients,
convalescent and carriers.
4. Adequate and safe water supply.
5. Control of flies.
6. Cleanliness in food handling and preparation

3. Cholera
• Definition
✓An acute illness caused by an enterotoxin elaborated by vibrio cholerae.
✓Vibrio cholerae
• Occurrence- has made periodic outbreaks in different parts of the world
and given rise to pandemics. Endemic predominantly in children.
• Mode of transmission- by ingestion of food or water directly or indirectly
contaminated with feces or vomitus of infected person.
• Incubation period- from a few hours to 5 days, usually 2-3 days.

• Treatment
✓Prompt replacement of fluids and electrolytes
✓Rapid IV infusions of large amounts
✓Isotonic saline solutions alternating with isotonic sodium bicarbonate or
sodium lactate.
✓Antibiotics like tetracycline dramatically reduce the duration and volume
of diarrhoea resulting in early eradication of vibrio cholerae
1. Case treatment
2. Safe disposal of human excreta and control of flies
3. Safe public water supply
4. Handwashing and sanitary handling of food
5. Control and management of contact cases.

4. Infectious hepatitis
• Definition
✓An acute viral disease characterized by abrupt onset of fever, malaise,
nausea and abdominal discomfort followed within a few days by jaundice.
• Infectious agent- Hepatitis A virus
• Occurrence- Worldwide distribution in sporadic and epidemic forms. In
developing countries, adults are usually immune andepidemics of HA are
uncommon. Infection is common where environmental sanitation is poor
and occurs at an early age.
• Reservoir- Humans.
• Mode of transmission- Person to person by fecal-oral route. Through
contaminated water and food contaminated by infected food handlers.
• Incubation period- 15-55 days, average 28-30 days.

• Treatment
✓Symptomatic: Rest, high carbohydrate diet with low fat and protein.
1. Public education about good sanitation and personal hygiene, with
special emphasis on careful handwashing and sanitary disposal of
feces.
2. Proper water treatment and distribution systems and sewage
disposal.
3. Proper management of day care centres to minimize possibility of
faecal-oral transmission.
4. HA vaccine for all travellers to intermediate or highly endemic areas.
5. Protection of day care centres employees by vaccine.

AIR-BORNE DISEASES
• The organisms causing the diseases in the air-borne group enter the
body via the respiratory tract. When a patient or carrier of
pathogens talks, coughs, laughs, or sneezes, he/she discharges fluid
droplets. The smallest of these remain up in the air for some time
and may be inhaled by a new host.
• Droplets with a size of 1-5 microns are quite easily drawn in to the
lungs and retained there.
•

• Droplets that are bigger in size will not remain air-borne for long but
will fall to the ground. Here, however, they dry and mix with dust.
When they contain pathogens that are able to
• survive drying, these may become air-borne again by wind or
something stirring up the dust, and they can then be inhaled.
• Air-borne diseases, obviously, will spread more easily when there is
overcrowding, as in overcrowded class rooms, public transport,
canteens, dance halls, and cinemas.
• Good ventilation can do much to counteract the effects of
overcrowding.
• Air-borne diseases are mostly acquired through the respiratory tract.

1. Common Cold
• Definition
• An acute catarrhal infection of the upper respiratory tract.
• Rhino viruses (100 serotypes) are the major causes in adults.
Parainfluenza viruses, respiratory syncytial viruses (RSV), Influenza, and
Adeno viruses cause common cold-like illnesses in infants and children.
• Occurrence- Worldwide both in endemic and epidemic forms. Many
people have one to six colds per year. Greater incidence in the
highlands. Incidence is high in children under 5 years and gradually
declines with increasing age.

• Mode of transmission- by direct contact or inhalation of airborne
droplets. Indirectly by hands and articles freshly soiled by discharges of
nose and throat of an infected person.
• Incubation period- between 12 hours and 5 days, usually 48 hours,
varying with the agent.
• Treatment
• No effective treatment but supportive measures like:
✓Bed rest
✓Steam inhalation
✓High fluid intake
✓Anti pain
✓Balanced diet intake

• Prevention and Control
• 1. Educate the public about the importance of:
✓Handwashing
✓Covering the mouth when coughing and sneezing
✓Sanitary disposal of nasal and oral discharges
• Avoid crowding in living and sleeping quarters especially in
institutions
• Provide adequate ventilation

2. Measles (Rubella)
• Definition
• An acute highly communicable viral disease
• Measles virus
• Occurrence- Prior to widespread immunization, measles was
common in childhood so that more than 90% of people had been
infected by age 20; few went through life without any attack.

• Mode of transmission- Airborne by droplet spread, direct contact
with nasal or throat secretions of infected persons and less commonly
by articles freshly solid with nose and throat secretion. Greater than
94% herd immunity may be needed to interrupt community
transmission.
• Incubation period- 7-18 days from exposure to onset of fever.
• Treatment
1. No specific treatment
2. Treatment of complications
3. Vitamin A provision

✓Educate the public about measles immunization.
✓Immunization of all children (less than 5 years of age) who had
contact with infected children.
✓Provision of measles vaccine at nine months of age.
✓Initiate measles vaccination at 6 months of age during
✓epidemic and repeat at 9 months of age.

3. Influenza
• Definition
✓An acute viral disease of the respiratory tract
✓Three types of influenza virus (A,B and C)
• Occurrence- In pandemics, epidemics and localized
outbreaks.
• Reservoir- Humans are the primary reservoirs for human infection.

• Mode of transmission- Airborne spread predominates among
crowded populations in closed places such as school buses.
• Incubation period- short, usually 1-3 days.
• Treatment
• 1. Same as common cold, namely:
✓Anti-pain and antipyretic
✓High fluid intake
✓Bed rest
✓Balanced diet intake

1. Educate the public in basic personal hygiene, especially the
danger of unprotected coughs and sneezes and hand to mucus
membrane transmission.
2. Immunization with available killed virus vaccines may provide
70-80% protection.
3. Amantadize hydrochloride is effective in the chemprophylaxis of
type A virus but not others.

4. Tuberculosis
• Definition
• A chronic and infectious mycobacterial disease important as a major
cause of illness and death in many parts of the world.
• Infectious agent.
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis- human tubercle bacilli (commonest
cause)
• Mycobacterium bovis- cattle and man infection
• Mycobacterium avium- infection in birds and man.
• Occurrence- Worldwide, however underdeveloped areas are more
affected. Affects all ages and both sexes. Age groups between 15-45
years are mainly affected. According to the WHO report, 9 million
cases and 3 million deaths have occurred.

• Mode of transmission- Through aerosolized droplets mainly from
persons with active ulcerative lesion of lung expelled during
talking, sneezing, singing, or coughing directly. Most important is
the length of time of contact an individual shares volume of air
with an infectious case. That is intimate, prolonged or frequent
contact is required. Transmission through contaminated fomites
(clothes, personal articles) is rare. Ingestion of unpasteurized milk
transmits bovine tuberculosis. Overcrowding and poor housing
conditions favor the disease transmission.
• Incubation period- 4-12 weeks
• Treatment
• The following drug are being used for treatment of TB in
• Rifampin

1. Chemotherapy of cases
2. Chemoprophylaxis for contacts
INH (Isoniazid) for adults and children who have close contact with the
source of infection
3. Immunization of infants with BCG
4. Educate patients with TB about the mode of disease
transmission and how to dispose their sputum and cover
their mouth while coughing, sneezing, etc.

5. Public health education about the modes of disease
transmission and methods of control
• Improved standard of living
• Adequate nutrition
• Health housing
• Environmental sanitation
• Personal hygiene; etc.
• Active case finding and treatment

Mosquito-Borne Diseases
1. Malaria
• Definition
• An acute infection of the blood caused by protozoa of the genus plasmodium.
• Infectious agent.
• Plasmodium falciparum/malignant tertian: Invades all ages of red blood cells. Red
blood cell cycle is 48 hours
• Plasmodium vivax/benign tertian: Invades reticulocytes only. Red blood cell cycle is 48
hours.
• Plamodium ovale/tertian: Invades reticulocytes only. Red blood cell cycle is 48 hours.
• Plasmodium Malariae/Quartan malaria: Invades reticulocytes only. Red blood cell
cycle is 72 hours.
• Epidemiology
• Occurrence- Endemic in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world. Affects 40%
of the world population. Children less 5 years of age, pregnant women and travelers
to endemic areas are risk groups.

• Mode of transmission- By the bite of an infective female anopheles mosquito, which
sucks blood for egg maturation. Blood transfusion, hypodermic needles, organ
transplantation and mother to fetus transmission is possible. Since there is no pre-
erythrocytic (tissue) cycle, the incubation period is short.
• Incubation period- Varies with species
✓ Plasmodium falciparum 7-14 days
✓ Plasmodium virvax 8-14 days
✓ Plasmodium ovale 8-14 days
✓ Plasmodium malariae 7-30 days
• Treatment
• 1. Plasmodium vivax, ovale and sensitive plasmodium falciparum
✓ Chloroquine or
✓ Fansidar
• 2. Chloroquine resistant falciparum and when sensitivitypattern is not known.
✓ Quinine or
✓ Fansidar

• 1. Chemoprophylaxis- for those who go to endemic areas but not
for those who live in the endemic area (travellers and
newcomers); for under-five children and pregnant mothers who
have not enough immunity.
• 2. Vector control
✓Avoiding mosquito breeding sites
✓Residual DDT spray or other chemicals
✓Personal protection against mosquito bite (use of bed nets, etc.)

2. Plague
• Definition
• A highly infectious bacterial disease which can kill many people within a
short time.
• Yersinia pestis, the plague bacillus.
• Epidemiology
• Occurrence- Endemic in wild rodents living in forests in the highlands.
Wild rodent plague exists in western USA, of South America, North,
Central, Eastern and Southern Africa, Central and Southeast Asia.
However, urban plague is controlled in most of the world.
• Reservoir- Wild rodents (especially ground squirrels) are the natural
vertebrate reservoir of plague. Wild carnivores and domestic cats may
also be a source of infection to people.

• Mode of transmission- Through the bite of infected fleas. Handling of
tissues of infected animals.
• Incubation period- 1-7 days.
• Treatment- Early treatment with antibiotics like streptomycin or
tetracycline or sulfa groups.
• Prevention and Control
1 . The area where disease occurs must be quarantined (isolated from
outer world)
2. Insecticides to kill fleas
3. Encourage people to kill rats
4. Notify the disease to the concerned health authority

Mosquito Life Cycle
• Egg - hatches when exposed to water.
• Larva - (plural: larvae) "wriggler" lives in water; molts
several times; most species surface to breathe air.
• Pupa - (plural: pupae) "tumbler" does not feed; stage
just before emerging as adult.
• Adult - flies short time after emerging and after its
body parts have hardened.

Mosquito Control measures
a. Drain
• Many mosquito problems in your neighborhood are likely to come
from water-filled containers that you, the resident, can help to
eliminate. All mosquitoes require water in which to breed. Be sure
to drain any standing water around your house.
• Dispose of any tires. Tires can breed thousands of mosquitoes.
• Drill holes in the bottom of recycling containers.
• Clear roof gutters of debris.
• Clean pet water dishes regularly.
• Check and empty children’s toys.
• Repair leaky outdoor faucets.

• Change the water in bird baths at least once a week.
• Canoes and other boats should be turned over.
• Avoid water collecting on pool covers.
• Empty water collected in tarps around the yard or on woodpiles.
• Plug tree holes.
• Even the smallest of containers that can collect water can breed
hundreds to thousands of mosquitoes. They don’t need much
water to lay their eggs. (bottles, barrels, buckets, overturned
garbage can lids, etc.)

b. Dress
• Wear light colored, loose fitting clothing.
• Studies have shown that some of the 174 mosquito species in
the United States are more attracted to dark clothing and most
can readily bite through tight-fitting clothing of loose weave.
• When practical, wear long sleeves and pants.

c. Defend
• Choose a mosquito repellent that has been registered by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
• Registered products have been reviewed, approved, and pose
minimal risk for human safety when used according to label
directions.
• Three repellents that are approved and recommended are: •
DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide)
• Picaridin (KBR 3023)
• Oil of lemon eucalyptus (p-methane 3,8- diol, or PMD)

Life Cycle of a Fly
• Egg
1. A female housefly lays her eggs in decaying organic material.
Housefly eggs hatchinto tiny larvae within 24 hours.
• Larva
2. Housefly larvae, called maggots, go through three
larval phases before buildingtheir pupal cocoons. The larval
phase lasts about 4 to 13 days.

• Pupa
3. Housefly pupae complete their development inside of
cocoons. The pupal phasetypically lasts for 2 to 6 days.
• Adult
4. Adult houseflies emerge from their cocoon and typically live for
15 to 25 days.
Adult houseflies begin reproducing in 10 to 14 days.
Fun Facts
• 5. A female housefly deposits up to 500 eggs in 4 days. Houseflies
live longer in cooler temperatures.

Flies Control
a. Cultural Control
• Cultural control means changing the environment to prevent houseflies
from developing. The best cultural method is to properly dispose of any
organic matter, such as vegetable or other food by-products, where
houseflies might lay eggs. Place these materials in garbage bags and tie
the bags securely. Remove all food residues and clean your garbage
cans weekly.
• Another cultural method is to keep houseflies out of homes and
businesses by
✓keeping windows screened and doors closed,
✓placing exhaust (blower) systems above doors, and
✓installing doors that open and close mechanically.

b. Biological control
• Parasitic wasps and fire ants suppress housefly populations naturally. If you
want to use this form of natural pest control, you can order fly pupae from
insectaries in Texas or across the United States.
• The pupae, which are already infected with the parasites, can be spread
around homes or near where houseflies are developing. Place the pupae in
areas out of direct sunlight where they will not be stepped on.
• Parasitic wasps do not harm people or animals. They seek out and kill
immature houseflies. However, parasitic wasps take time to work, and they
alone will not eliminate a housefly population. Use this method in
combination with other methods.

c. Chemical control
• When necessary, insecticides can help suppress housefly
populations. Fly baits, such as QuickBayt® and Golden Malrin®,
are usually sugar-based and contain a compound that attracts
the adult flies. Flies that feed on these baits are killed by the
insecticide they digest.
• Many spray pyrethroid-based insecticides can suppress
houseflies in and around homes. These products can be
purchased at grocery and hardware stores. Be sure to read and
follow the instructions on all insecticide labels.

MCQs
1. A _______ ______________ is one that is spread from one person to another
through a variety of ways.
2. _______ ___________ is the pathogen (germ) that causes diseases.
3. __________ includes places in the environment where the pathogen lives.
4. ___ __________ is the way the infectious agent leaves the reservoir.
5. _______ ____________ is the way the infectious agent can be passed on.
6. __________ __________ is the way the infectious agent can enter a new host.
7. __________ host can be any person.
8. The organisms causing the diseases in the ____________group enter the body
via the respiratory tract.

9. COVID19 is non communicable disease (True/False).
10. For prevention and control of vector borne diseases life cycle
study of vectors is essential. (True/False)
11.__________is a stage just before emerging as adult in life cycle
of flies.
12.

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