Theories of learning and individual development

2. LEARNING
• The process by which behavior is either
modified or wholly changed through
experience or training.
• An ongoing process of continued
adaptation to our environment,
assimilation of new information and
accommodation of new input to fit
prior knowledge.

3. The Five Broad Models of
Learning

4. Behaviourist Model
Epistemology
• Behaviourist theory asserts that knowledge is finite.
• Learning is said to be overt, observable and
measurable using empirical methods.
• This contributes to the belief that learning is
observable through changes in behaviour of the
learner.

5. Learning theory
• There is a focus on physical behaviour that can be
observed, controlled and measured.
• Learning occurs where specific stimuli are introduced
to the learner causing certain responses to occur
which result in a change in behaviour.
• Learning usually takes place in incremental steps and
can be increased through repetition and
reinforcement.
• A teacher (or organization) determines what
objectives the learner should achieve. (controlled
stimuli.)

6. Methods of learning
• Stimulus response is required for learning to occur.
• The learner takes a passive role and the teacher an
active role.
• The teacher determines goals, appropriate stimuli to
achieve those goals and an appropriate sequence for
delivery.

7. Theorists
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)
• Thorndike conducted experiments with animals that greatly
influenced the development of behaviourist theory.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990)
• Skinner was seen as a radical behaviourist and conducted a
lot of research in the area of ‘operant conditioning’.
Robert Gagne (1916–2002)
• He developed his own theory on ‘Conditions of learning’
that outlines nine events of instruction that can be used to
induce learning.

8. Humanist Model
Epistemology
• Humanist theory posits a natural desire of individuals
to learn.
• Knowledge is deemed infinite with limitless
possibilities.
• The potential for growth of an individual learner is
considered boundless.
• Learners need to be empowered and to have control
over the learning process and not to have learning
‘done’ to them.

9. Learning theory
• Learning is considered in relation to the learner’s
unlimited potential for growth.
• The individual drives learning in an attempt to reach
self-actualization.
• Learners are encouraged to take responsibility for
their own learning.
• Sometimes this is described as 'facilitation learning
theory' where learning is seen to occur through the
educator acting as a facilitator, who establishes a
supportive environment enabling learners to
consider new ideas.

10. Methods of learning
• The learner is involved at all stages.
• The learning process addresses student needs. Self-
analysis and evaluation are useful tools that enable
the learner to reflect on their own experience.
• The lecturer may be seen to extract lessons from the
learner with the use of inquiry to help students find
out for themselves what is important.

11. Theorists
John Dewey (1859–1952)
• He believed human interaction with the world contributed to
learning as part of a self-guided discovery.
Alexander Sutherland Neill (1883–1973)
• Neill’s primary interest lay with the education of the whole
person.
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
• He was interested in self-actualization associated with the
desire to improve and develop.
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
• Maslow’s most notable work is associated with his theory on a
hierarchy of 'basic needs' and his research on motivation.

12. Information Processing Model
Epistemology
• Meaningful information is easier to learn and
remember.
• If a learner links relatively meaningless information
with prior schema it will be easier to retain.
• Knowledge of the world is organized and reorganized
until some level of understanding is acquired.
• The structure of knowledge is linked to the gradual
level of development of the learner.

13. Learning theory
• The information processing model has its roots in
cognitivist theory, although characteristics of
constructivist theory are also considered.
• Cognitivism is based on the principle that learning
develops through exposure of information that is
logically presented, and that new information can be
more easily understood when it is linked to
something that is already learned.

14. Methods of learning
• Consideration is given to the current understanding
of the subject matter.
• Thereafter structures may be put in place to support
the learning process that will enable the learner to
relate new information to their current
understanding and, then, through the reorganization
and processing of this knowledge form new insights.

15. Theorists
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947)
• He believed that democracy was an important aspect of group
dynamics but that the process could not be enforced.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
• Piaget conducted considerable research in the area of child
development. Involved students promotes cognitive development.
Jerome Bruner (1915–present)
• He believes that instruction should take cognizance of student
experience in order to ensure a state of readiness towards learning.
David Ausubel (1918–present)
• Ausubel is best known for his development of advance organizers to
assist student learning.

16. Activity Model
Epistemology
• The activity model adopts the belief that learning is a
process of constructing knowledge.
• Activist learning empowers learners to articulate
themselves in a way that is relevant to their lives and
their roles as agents of change.
• The nature of knowledge is constructed and based on
experience.

17. Learning theory
• Students are no longer passive receptacles of
information and knowledge in traditional classroom
settings.
• Stems from constructivism.
• Based on the principle of the learner questioning
their current view of knowledge and acquiring new
knowledge that allows a new understanding to be
formed.
• It incorporates social interaction.
• This is done through an active learning process that is
driven by a particular task or activity.

18. Methods of learning
• The methods adopted are completely dependent on
the context of the particular activity, which in turn
influences the collaborative process of identifying
and exploring the sequence of learning.

19. Theorists
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896–1934)
• Vygotsky argued that social interaction was an important component
in the development of student learning.
Albert Bandura (1925–present)
• Emphasizes the importance of learning from others and not relying
solely on the individual’s own practices.
David Boud (contemporary)
• Boud’s research focuses on experience-based learning, adult learning
and development of professional practice.
Michael Eraut (contemporary)
• Eraut’s research is primarily concerned with learning in the
workplace, continuing professional development and the actual
learning that takes place in the context of work.

20. Situated Learning Model
Epistemology
• This model stresses the integral link between context,
social environment and learning.
• Learning is a function of the activity, context and
culture in which it occurs.
• Therefore knowledge is meaningful when it is learned
in an authentic context and situation.
• The emphasis is on providing meaningful and
relevant learning experiences in authentic contexts.

21. Learning theory
• As with the activity model, situated learning also
adopts constructivist principles.
• Social interaction is a critical component of situated
learning: learners become involved in a ‘community
of practice’ that embodies certain beliefs and
behaviours.
• Participatory learning theory claims that knowledge
is not a thing or set of descriptions, nor a collection
of facts and rules that can be transmitted to the
learner but rather that knowledge is constructed by
the learner.

22. Methods of learning
• Given the dynamics of the situated learning model,
learning will always take place within a given context
and therefore this gives any arising tasks or situation
a meaningful purpose.
• Procedures and structures emerge out of the specific
situation.

23. Theorists
Jean Lave (contemporary)
• She believes that learning is more natural when it takes place in
the environment where it is supposed to occur, and that learning
in the classroom is abstract.
Etienne Wenger (contemporary)
• Wenger has partnered Lave in research studies of situated
learning.
Stephen Billet (contemporary)
• Billet’s main research area focuses on learning at work.
Paul Hager (contemporary)
• Hager’s background lies in vocational training and professional
development of teachers and trainers.

24. They are sets of conjectures and
hypotheses that explain the process of
learning or how learning takes place.

25. 1. Behavioral Learning Theories or
Associative Learning Theories
• Prefer to concentrate on actual behavior
• Conclusions based on observations of
external manifestations of learning.
1.1 Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov
Believes that individual learns when a
previously neutral stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned stimulus until
the neutral stimulus evokes a
conditioned response.

26. Includes the following
1. Stimulus Generalization - a process by
which the conditioned response transfer
to other stimuli that are similar to the
original conditioned stimulus
2. Discrimination - a process by which one
learns not to respond to similar stimuli in
an identical manner because of previous
experiences.
3. Extinction - the process by which a
conditioned response is lost.

27. 1.2 Edward Thorndike's Connectionism
Puts more emphasis on the response
of the organism not limiting himself to
the association between the stimulus
and the response.
Involves the Three Major Laws of
Learning
• Law of Readiness - readiness is an important
condition of learning. A learner may be
satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her
stage of readiness. The learner should be
biologically prepared.

28. • Law of Exercise - explains that any
connection is strengthened in proportion to
the number of times it occurs and in
proportion to the average vigor and
duration of the connection. Practice alone
is not enough for improvement
• Law of Effect - when an organism's response
is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory
state, the strength of the connection is
increased. If an annoying state accompanies
or follows the response, the strength of the
connection is decreased. Rewards,
successes or positive reinforcement further
learning, while punishment, failure, or
negative experiences hinder it.

29. 1.3 Burrhus Skinner's Reinforcement and
Operant Conditioning
Stresses the consequence of behavior in
order to learn.
Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool
in shaping and controlling behavior in and
out of the classroom.
Classifies Reinforcements into
• Verbal – praise, encouragement
• Physical - touches, pats, hugs
• Non-Verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks
• Activity - being allowed to play games. Listen to
music, etc.
• Token - points, chips, stars
• Consumable - cookies

30. 2. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Is also called observational learning theory
States that learning takes place when one
person observes and then imitates the
behavior of others.
Stresses the Importance of Models because the
observer-learner may:
• Acquire new responses;
• Strengthen or weaken every existing response;
• Cause the reappearance of responses that have
been apparently forgotten.

31. Involves Four Phases
1. Attention - mere exposure does not ensure acquisition
of behavior. Observer must attend and recognize the
distinctive features of the model's response.
2. Retention - reproduction of the desired behavior
Implies that student symbolically retains that observed
behavior.
3. Motor Reproduction Process - after observation, have
students demonstrate as soon as possible. Correct
behavior can be reinforced while incorrect ones are
altered.
4. Motivational Process - although observer acquires and
retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there
will be no overt performance unless conditions are
favorable.

32. 3. Cognitive Learning Theories
Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive
process.
Believe In the non-observable behavior.
3.1 David Ausubel's Meaningful Reception
Learning Theory
• Concerned with how students learn large
amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school
setting.
• Meaningful learning results when
Information Is acquired by linking the new
information in the learner's own cognitive
structure.

33. • Meaningful learning occurs when new
experiences are related to what a learner
already knows.
• A major instructional mechanism proposed
by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers
(different from overviews and summaries
which simply emphasize key ideas) which
help to link new learning material with
existing related ideas
• Is different from discovery learning, since
• Reception Learning - is concerned about
resenting the Ideas to be learned to the
learner in a well organized fashion, while
• Discovery Learning - focuses on having
identify the key ideas to be learned by
themselves and work out to store this
information on their own.

34. 3.2 Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning
Theory (Inquiry Method)
• Implies learning by discovering the
solution
• Contends that students should be given a
wide variety of examples of certain facts
and Information and encourage them to
discover the answer or the underlying
rules or principles.
• An approach to Instruction through which
students interact with their environment
by exploring and manipulating objects,
wrestling with questions and
controversies or performing experiments.

35. • Emphasizes that students should learn to
recognize a problem characterize what a
solution would like, search for relevant
information, develop a solution strategy
and execute the chosen strategy
• Believes that: “You can't teach people
everything they need to know. The best
you can do is to position them where they
can find what they need to know when
they need to know it" - Seymour Papert

36. You can teach a student a lesson
for a day; but if you can teach
him to learn by creating curiosity,
he will continue the learning
process as long as he lives.
Clay P. Bedford

37. Theories of Learning and Curriculum Design
Key Positionalities and their Relationships
Tony Cunningham, Julie Gannon, Mary Kavanagh,
John Greene, Louise Reddy, Laurence Whitson
Professional Education
Principles and Theories of Learning and
Motivation
Prof. Aurelia T. Estrada
Prof. Marivilla Lydia B. Aggarao
pp. 45-55

38. JOSE R. MIÑANO
MAIE-AS

39. • The definitions of intelligence are numerous
depending on the context of a given situation.
• Sternberg defined intelligence as “a person’s ability to
adapt to the environment and to learn from
experiences”.
• In Sternberg’s research these elements were used in
defining intelligence:
(a) higher-level abilities
(b) ability to learn
(c) adaptation to meet the demands of the
environment effectively.

40. • In order to possess the abilities to solve problems,
individuals must have the cognitive abilities, the
motivation, and the abilities to apply these behaviors
to adapt and make changes.
• According to Sternberg (1997), a person’s ability to
infer a process could differ between verbal and
quantitative or other representational domains
(Sternberg & Gardner, 1983).
• How an individual utilizes intelligence to solve
problems can be explained by some of the major
theories of intelligence.

41. • One of the most important theories of intelligence,
Daniel Goleman’s emotional intelligence, assists in
understanding how individuals control how they
learn.
• This theory best explains how humans must be able
to understand the origins of these feelings before
they act so that the most intelligent decisions can be
made.
• Sternberg also adds that, with age, individuals learn
to make the best of the abilities that remain intact
while learning to compensate for the abilities they
are losing.

42. • As individuals think and behave differently, this difference
allows for enriched interactions between individuals.
• It is argued, by McClellan and Conti (2008), that humans
possess a number of distinct intelligences that is beyond
verbal and logical abilities that appear in different skills:
• Linguistic
• Logical-mathematical
• Musical
• Bodily-kinesthetic
• Naturalistic
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Existential
• All of these construct the beauty of multiple intelligence
(as cited by Gardner, 1983).

43. • Moran et al. (2006) elucidate that all individuals
possess each of the skills to some extent but differ in
the degree of skill and in their combinations
• Moran et al. (2006) define multiple intelligence as
“…the ability to solve problems or devise products
that are of significance in a particular cultural
setting…”
• Each learner’s intelligence profile consists of a
combination of relative strengths and weaknesses
which allow for problem solving skill to “approach a
situation that requires a goal to be met and locate
the appropriate route to that goal” (Garner, 1993)

44. • As intelligence generally refers to more than just
“adapting to the environment”, successful
intelligence distinguishes among adapting, shaping,
and selecting of an environment (Sternberg, 2005).
• Over the course of one’s life-time, environmental
conditions change significantly.
• To survive these changes, one needs to continuously
adapt, which is a key skill of intelligence.

45. • Humans constantly use real personal interactions to
understand and apply intelligence in the world.
• Since individuals change their locations, it would be
most impractical to retain an individual in one place
so that training in communication skills can be
employed at a particular location.
• The most appropriate solution, suggested by Persson,
Laaksolahti and Lonnqvist (2002), is to use computers
so that social intelligence can help improve
communication skills.

46. • Practical intelligence involves individuals applying
their abilities to the kinds of problems that confront
them in daily life, such as on the job or in the home.
• Practical intelligence involves applying the
components of intelligence to experience so as to:
a) adapt to,
b) shape, and,
c) select environments.
• People differ in their balance of adaptation, shaping,
and selection, and in the competence with which
they balance among the three possible courses of
action.

47. • Much of our work on practical intelligence has
centered on the concept of tacit knowledge, defined
as what one needs to know in order to work
effectively in an environment that one is not explicitly
taught and that often is not even verbalized.
• We typically have measured tacit knowledge using
work-related problems that present problems one
might encounter on the job.
• In a typical tacit-knowledge problem, people are
asked to read a story about a problem someone faces
and to rate, for each statement in a set of statements,
how adequate a solution the statement represents.

48. • We have found, first, that practical intelligence as
embodied in tacit knowledge increases with
experience, but it is profiting from experience, rather
than experience per se, that results in increases in
scores.
• Also, scores on tacit-knowledge tests do not correlate
with scores on conventional tests of intelligence,
whether the measures used are single-score measures
of multiple-ability batteries.
• Despite the lack of correlation of practical intelligence
with conventional measures, the scores on tacit
knowledge tests predict performance on the job as well
as or better than do conventional psychometric
intelligence tests.

49. • To adapt to or make positive changes in one’s life and
environment, intelligence is required to ensure that it
is understood what is to be changed and how to do
so.
• As every individual differs in their intellect, the theory
of multiple intelligence explains that every human
being is able to interact and learn from each other.
• As we learn from our emotional intelligence and
other’s multiple intelligence, we gain more education
and learn how to use successful intelligence to adapt
and make changes to the world.

50. Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D., & Weissberg, R. P., (2006). Emotional intelligence:
What does the research really indicate? Educational Psychologist, 41(4), 239-245.
Retrieved from
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid
McClellan, J., & Conti, G. (2008). Identifying the multiple intelligences. Journal of Adult
Education, 37(1). 13-36. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ891071.pdf
Moran, S., Kornhaber, M., & Gardner, H. (2006, September). Orchestrating multiple
intelligences. Educational Leadership, 64(1). 23-27. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov
O’Neil, J. (1996, Sept ember). On emotional intelligence: A conversation with Daniel
Goleman. Educational Leadership. 6-11.
Persson, P., Laaksolahti, J., & Lonnqvist, P. (2002). Understanding social intelligence.
Socially intelligent agents: Creating relationships with computers and robots. 21-28.
Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://kolxo3.tiera.ru/Cs_Computer%2520
Sternberg, R. J. (1997, October). The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning
and success. American Psychologist, 52(10), 1030-1037.
Sternberg, R. J. (2005). The theory of successful intelligence. International Journal of
Psychology. 39(2), 189-202. Retrieved from
http://www.psicorip.org/Resumos/PerPRIP/RIP036a0?RIP03921.pdf

51. There are no great
limits to growth
because there are
no limits of human
intelligence,
imagination, and
wonder.
Ronald Reagan