The Word doc is baased on motivation, its theories and relevant topics. The PPT of this data is also uploaded by me so pls do have a look. I hope it helps.

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Motivation and Its Related Terms
-Purav Sangani & Vidhi Kothari
Meaning
The word motivation comes from a Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to move’. Motivation is
a psychological feature thatinduces an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls,
and sustains certain goal-directed behaviours. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological
one that compelsorreinforcesanactiontowarda desiredgoal.Forexample, hunger is a motivation
that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation is the purpose or psychological cause of an action.
Motivation and related terms
It may seem like a subtle distinction, but the worlds of motivation and inspiration are millions of
milesapart.A lot of people use the words“motivated” and “inspired” interchangeably. But there is
somethingdifferenttobe the case.When one tries to motivate oneself, nine times out of ten on is
pushing me to do something he/she don’t really care about.
Inspiration comes from a completely different place. The word inspiration means to be in
spirit. When you’re tuned into your spirit, you are naturally drawn to do whatever feels best. You
may dothingsthat aren’toutwardlyproductive.Oryou may write a book in 30 days. Either way, it’s
all good because fulfilment is the end result.
Motivation, on the other hand, usually has a lot to do with fake growth. You think you should be
doingsomething(withoutthinkingabout why) and it often leads in the direction of something that
doesn’treallymatter.It’swhatyou’re “supposed”tobe doing.It’sjusta good idea,nota passionate,
burning desire that emanates from the core of your being.
So, motivation is about things that you think you should do or that you’re supposed to do.
Inspiration is about being called to act because you’re in direct alignment with the magnetic,
luminous marrow of potential that is you.
Whenyou’re inspiredyouknowbecause…
Life feels effortless.
You have to holdyourself backfromstarting rightnow.
Your passionburnssteady,itdoesn’tflatline.
It occupiesmagnitudesof mental space,there’snovacancy.
You feel calledtodothis;the feelingcomesfromyourcore.
You feel itin yourbones.
Here are some responsesthatpeoplegave whentheywere askedtodefine motivationand
inspiration:
“Motivationisrequiredwhenyou’renotalignedwithyourhighestvalues.”
“Motivationisnot alwayspositive.”
“Motivationisexternal,inspirationisinternal”

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“Motivationisinnerdrive tofulfil goal.Inspirationishavingaglimpse of whoyoureallyare.”
“Motivationisthe push.Inspirationisthe pull.”
It’sinterestinghoweveryoneseesinspirationandmotivationdifferently.
Emotionisdifferentfrommotivationinthatthere isnotnecessarilyagoal orientationaffiliated with
it. Emotions occur as a result of an interaction between perception of environmental stimuli,
hormonal responses to these perceptions and subjective cognitive labeling of these feelings.
Motivation is the inner stimulus that leads to an action that satisfies the need. Any idea, need or
emotionthatpromptsa man intoactionis motivation.Motivationisthe force that energizes human
behaviour.Inotherwords,youhave certainneedsor wants and this causes you to do certain things
whichsatisfythose needsandthiscanthenchange which needs/wants are primary and which ones
are secondary.
Is motivation manipulation?
Motivation motivates someone into positive action from an input of enthusiastic support of the
cause, whereas manipulation tricks someone into complying as a result of being manipulating
coerced to follow the leader’s position not from being enthused, but more often from fear.
There is often said to be only a fine line between manipulating someone and motivating them. In
both cases, you can get someone into action, in working for you, or following your cause.
Manipulationexertsapowerful influence ontosomeone totryto getthemto follow alongwith your
direction.Usuallyaspecificoutcome oraparticularresponse isbeingbullied out of someone in this
way.
Manipulationthenusuallyfeelslike being forced, pushed, or dragged along, whereas motivation is
more about creatingthe energyinsomeone that theywill thenfollow youwiththeirownvolition,by
deciding to do so, as a result of the enthusiasm they might be now feeling for your cause.
Enthusiasm can be caught by others when you are being over enthusiastic towards them, and in
itself thismightactuallybe seenbyothersasalsobeing a form of manipulation, hence the thin line
that exists between the two terms.
Four stages from motivation to de-motivation in an organization
1. Motivational ineffective:anemployeeismostmotivatedinthisstage. He ismotivatedbut
because he isnewinthe environment,he doesnotknow whattodo,so he is ineffective.
2. Motivational effective:the employee haslearnedwhattodoand doesit withdrive and
energy.
3. De-motivational effective:aftersome timethe motivational level goesdownandthe
employeestartslearningthe tricksof the trade.
4. De-motivational ineffective:employeeisleastmotivatedinthisstage andalsoreduces
performance.
Unfaircriticism,publichumiliation,rewardingthe non-performer,failure orfearof failure,low self
esteem,office politicsare some otherfactorsof de-motivation.

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Techniques of Motivation
There are primarily two techniques of motivation
Financial motivation: Although some theorist believe that money is not a positive motivator, pay
system are designed to motivate employees
Why is pay important?
It is an important cost for a business. Pay helps to satisfy many needs. It helps attract reliable
employeeswiththe skillsthe businessneedsforsuccess.Payalsohelpsretainemployees. For, most
of the employees’ remuneration package is the most important part of job. Business includes an
elementof performance relatedrewardintheirpaystructure.Howeveritisimportantto remember
that pay is only one element of motivation and will work best where management also gives
attention to
 Developing good management and supervision
 Providing feedback to staff about their performance
 Making effective arrangements for communication
When managers are asked to list motivators for employees the list looks like
 Salary
 Bonuses
 Vacation
 Retirement
 Other benefit
 Interesting work
 Feedback
 Training
 Respect
It is interesting to note that managers rank money items as their employees’ top 5 motivators.
When employees are asked to rank their own motivators the list looks like this:
 Interesting work
 Involved in decision
 Feedback
 Training
 Respect
 Salary
 Bonuses
 Vacation
 Retirement
 Other benefits
It is interesting to note that employees list is just the opposite to that of managers list.

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Non- Financial motivation: financial motivatorsdonotworkforevertomotivate people at work and
employees. Employees do not always run after money. The following are the non financial
incentives:
1. Competition:if there isa healthycompetition among the individual employees or group of
employees it will lead them to achieve their personal or group goals in a better way.
2. Praise: it satisfies ones ego needs. Sometimes, praise is more effective than any other
incentives.
3. Opportunity for growth: if the employeesare providedopportunitiesfortheiradvancement
and growthand to developtheirpersonality, they feel very much satisfy and become more
committed to the organizational goals.
4. Suggestionsystem:Many organizations which use the suggestion system make use of cash
awardsfor useful suggestion. This motivates the employees to be in search for some thing
which maybe of greater use to the organization.
MYTHS IN MOTIVATION
The topic of motivating employees is extremely important to managers and supervisors. Before
lookingatwhat managementcandoto supportthe motivationof employees, it is important first to
clear up these common myths.
Myth #1: “The manager can motivate people”
Notreally.Motivationisinternal innature.Employees have to motivate and empower themselves.
However, the manager can set up an environment where they best motivate and empower
themselves.
Myth #2: “moneyis a good motivator”
Moneymaybe one of the motivatorstostart up and thismaybe true for people especiallyinthe
juniormanagementlevel.Butaftera certainstage moneystopsfunctioningasa motivator.
Myth #3 : “Fear is a good motivator”
Nowwe are inthe knowledge era where individuals are expected to be a powerful courtesy in the
knowledge base theypossess. Insucha scenario,fearmaybe a greatmotivatorfor a very short time
but it may trigger rebellious actions from the employees.
Myth #4 : “What motivates me is what motivates my employees”:
Differentthingsmotivate differentpeople.Itdependsonpersonal andprofessional agendas of each
and every employee and is distinct for each one of them.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES:
These basic principles are MUST to be remembered.
M-Motivating employees start with motivating oneself. If one is doing good job of taking care of
oneself.
U- Understanding what motivates each of them as each person is motivated by different things.
S- Supporting employee motivation is a process, and not a task.
T- To map and match the goals of the organization with goals of employees.

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Four Drive Theory
- Jay Marvania
Motivationcan be explainedasan inner stimulus that arises out of a need or want and gives rise to
an actionthat wouldsatisfythatneedorwant.In simple words we can say that, any idea or need or
emotion that makes a man do something or act in a particular way is called as motivation. It is a
force or energy that drives the human actions or behavior. There are many theories proposed by
differentpeopleonmotivation.Theoriesmaybe Contenttheories(theoneswhichdefinemotivation
as need for satisfaction of different needs or wants) or Process theories (the ones which define
motivation as a rational cognitive process)
Four drive theorycanbe statedas one of the contenttheorieswhich focusesonthe fourbasicneeds
that drive the human behavior into a certain course for its successful fulfillment. Many motivation
expertsmayhave abandonedthe traditionaltheoriesof needs hierarchy or the ERG theory but they
haven’tgivenuponthe fact that these needsare importantandsomewhereinside,these needs are
the factors that contribute the most to motivation in individuals. The Four Drive Theory was
developedbyProfessorPaul Lawrence andProfessorNitinNohriawho teachat the Harvard Business
School. They believe that every individual is driven into doing some action because of four basic
factors which drive him.
The Four Drive Theoryorganizesthe drivesintofourcategoriesviz.bond,acquire,learn and defend.
These drivesare notsomethingwhichisfoundinonlyfew individuals.Theseare common all around
the globe and hence universally applicable. The special characteristic of this theory is that these
drivesare independenti.e.eachdrive hasitsownuniqueness.Sothere isnodependencyamongthe
four drives. The following are the four drives:
1. Drives to Bond- Humans are social animals. Thus they cannot stay alone or bear loneliness
for a long time which is why we all form social relationships and develop mutual caring
commitmentswitheachother.Anywhere inanycornerof the worldwe won’tfindsomeone
who would not be having some bond with someone. It is because it is a human nature to
share and communicate the feelingsandthoughtswiththe ones around them. This drive to
bond motivates people to cooperate and work together towards a common goal which is
one the important factors for any organization’s success or development of the society at
large.
2. Drive to Acquire- Everyindividualhas some goals or some aims in his mind which he wants
to achieve. This is the drive to seek, take control and retain objects and personal
experiences. It is not limited to the basic needs of food, clothing and shelter but goes
beyondthatsuch as needforrelative statusand recognition in society. The drive to acquire
givesrise to a healthy competition among different individuals having a common goal. We
all know that human wants are insatiable i.e. they are never ending. Thus we can say that
the drive to acquire is insatiable because the purpose of motivation is to achieve a higher
goal or position than others or, in some cases, oneself.

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3. Drive to Learn- I believe that human brain is such that it becomes curious on the sight of
something new. It is because it functions in such a way that it makes one clear the
knowledge gapwhichprevailswhenone doesnotknow something or sees something new.
Thisdrive isto satisfyourcuriosity,toknow and understandourselvesandthe environment
around us. When observing something that is inconsistent with or beyond our current
knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close that information gap. This
drive is related to higher-order needs of growth and self-actualization described in the
traditional theories of Needs hierarchy and others. The developments in science or our
surroundings are a result of this drive which makes us learn new and better ways of doing
the same thing.
4. Drive to Defend- This drive does not limit itself to the action of defending in the physical
termsbut alsosocially.Expertsbelieveittobe the veryfirstdrive to developwhichcreates a
fight-or-flight response in the face of danger. It is a drive that is triggered automatically in
the presence of danger to oneself weather physically or socially. When compared to other
drives,we cansay that this drive is always reactive i.e. it comes up when one feels danger.
However the other three drives are proactive i.e. we actively seek to improve our
achievements, knowledge and relations.
The science behindthese drivesdrivinganindividualisalsoexplainedtosome extentbythe experts.
Experts believe that every bit of information we receive is quickly and unconsciously tagged with
emotional markersthatsubsequently shape our logical analysis of the situation. Our motivation to
act is a result of rational thinking influenced by these markers. From what I understand from the
above analysis by experts, the emotions that prevail in humans determine in which areas the
different drives would work. For example a kid watches someone dance and is attracted to it. His
drive tolearnwill be activatedbecause itissomething out of his current knowledge. Later on when
he has learned it, his drive to acquire will make him dance to gain appreciation in the society.
Furtherhisdrive tobond will make him interact with people having similar interests. And finally if
someone were tocriticize the dance or the activity of dancing, he might feel offended and thus his
drive to defend will make him angry for the unacceptance by someone. However this will not be a
case if the kidwouldnothave likeddancinginthe firstplace.Thus the four innate drives determine
our emotions in different situations.
This knowledge is very useful in workplace as different people will act differently base on their
drives. Experts say that, our conscious analysis of competing demands from the four drives
generatesneeds that energize us to act in ways acceptable to society and our own moral compass.
This explains how are needs are based in inner innate drives, how emotions are generated from
those drivesinthe contextof a specific situation, and how personal experience and cultural values
influencethe intensity,persistence,anddirectionof effort.Howeverthismodel is new and requires
much more work to clarify the role of skill sets in goal-directed choice and efforts.

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The developers of this theory provide a main recommendation that the organization must ensure
that the individualjobsandworkplacesprovide balancedopportunities to fulfill the drives to bond,
acquire, learn and defend. They give two recommendations when talking about application of the
four drive theory in organizations. The first one says that all the drives must be regularly fulfilled.
The theory says that we are constantly seeking fulfillment of our innate drives. Thus the best
workplace for motivation and morale provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, social
interactionsandsoforthfor all the employees.The secondone isthatthese drivesmustbe kept in a
balance. The organization must avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive. The
reasonfor thisisthat the four drives counterbalance each other. For example, an organization that
energizesthe drive toacquire without the drive to bond may eventually suffer from organizational
politicsandconflicts.Change andnovelty in workplace will aid the drive to learn but too much of it
will trigger the drive to defend so that the employees become territorial and resistant to change.
Thus these are the four innate drives in practical application and the recommendations by its
developerswhichwill eventuallybe helpful tothe managersorthe higherlevel managementpeople
whoneedto manage a certainnumberof employees.The FourDrive Theoryis somewhat related or
similar to David McClelland’s Theory of learned needs.

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Theory Of Learned Needs
- Bhavin Soni
Introduction:
Managing a group of people with different personalities is never easy. But if you're managing or
leading a team, it's essential to know what motivates your people, how they respond to feedback
and praise, and what tasks fit them well.
Psychologist David McClelland's Human Motivation Theory gives you a way of identifying people's
motivating drivers. This can then help you to give praise and feedback effectively, assign them
suitable tasks, and keep them motivated.
Need for Achievement
People withastrongneedforachievementwanttoaccomplishreasonablychallenginggoalsthrough
their own effort. They prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose task with a
moderate degree of riski.e.neither too easy nor too hard to complete. High need for achievement
people also desire unambiguous feedback and recognition of their success. Money is a weak
motivator, except when it provided feedback and recognition. People motivated by achievement
need challenging, but not impossible, projects. They thrive on overcoming difficult problems or
situations,somake sure youkeepthemengaged this way. People motivated by achievement work
very effectively either alone or with other high achievers. In contrast, employees with such a low
need for achievement perform their work better when money is used as an incentive. Successful
entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement, possibly because they establish
challenging goals for themselves and thrive on competition. When providing feedback, give
achievers a fair and balanced appraisal. They want to know what they're doing right – and wrong –
so that they can improve.
Need for Affiliation:
Need for affiliation refers to a desire to seek approval from others, confirm to their wishes and
expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontations. People with strong need for affiliation try to
project a favourable image of them. They tend to actively support others and try to smooth out
workplace conflicts.Highneedforaffiliationemployeesgenerallyworkwell inco-ordinating roles to
mediate conflicts, and in sales positions where the main task is cultivating long term relations.
However, they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and making other decisions
that potentially generate conflict. People in decision-making positions must have a relatively low
needforaffiliationsothattheirchoicesand actions are not biased by a personal need for approval.
People motivated by affiliation work best in a group environment, so try to integrate them with a
team (versus working alone) whenever possible. They also don't like uncertainty and risk. When
providingfeedbacktothese people,be personal.It'sstill importanttogive balanced feedback, but if
you start your appraisal by emphasizing their good working relationship and your trust in them,

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they'll likelybe more opentowhatyousay.Rememberthat these people often don't want to stand
out, so it might be best to praise them in private rather than in front of others.
Need for Power:
People with a high need for power want to exercise control over others and are concerned about
maintaining leadership positions. They frequently rely on persuasive communication, make more
suggestions in the meetings and tend to publicly evaluate situations more frequently. David
McClellandpointedoutthatthere are twotypesof needforpower.Those whoenjoytheirpowerfor
their own sake use it to advance personal interest and wear their power as a status symbol have
personalizedpower.Othersmainlyhave ahighneedforsocializedpowerbecause theydesire power
as a means to help others. McClelland asserted that leaders are more effective when they have a
highneedforsocializedratherthanpersonalizedpower.Theyshouldhave ahigh degree of altruism
and social responsibility and must be concerned about the consequences of their own actions on
others.
Those with a high need for power work best when they're in charge. Because they enjoy
competition, they do well with goal-oriented projects or tasks. They may also be very effective
innegotiations orin situations in which another party must be convinced of an idea or goal. When
providingfeedback,be directwiththeseteammembers.Andkeepthemmotivatedbyhelping them
further their career goals.
Let's look at the 2 steps for using McClelland's theory:
Step 1: IdentifyDrivers
Examine your team to determine which of the three motivators is dominant for each person. You
can probably identify drivers based on personality and past actions.
For instance,perhapsone of yourteammembersalwaystakescharge of the group when you assign
a project.He speaksupinmeetingstopersuade people,andhe delegates responsibilities to others
to meetthe goalsof the group.He likestobe incontrol of the final deliverables. This team member
is likely primarily driven by the power.
You mighthave anotherteammember who never speaks during meetings. She always agrees with
the group,workshard to manage conflictwhenitoccurs, and visibly becomes uncomfortable when
youtalk aboutdoing high-risk, high-reward projects. This person is likely to have a strong need for
affiliation.
Step 2: Structure YourApproach
Based on the driving motivators of your workers, structure your leadership style and project
assignmentsaroundeachindividualteammember.Thiswill helpensurethatthey all stay engaged ,
motivated, and happy with the work they're doing.

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Expectancy Theory
- Pooja Gada & Harsh Mehta
Expectancytheory proposesthatanindividual will decide to behave or act in a certain way because
they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the
result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is
determinedby the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive
process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before
makingthe ultimate choice.The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision
of howto behave. Expectancytheoryisaboutthe mental processesregardingchoice, or choosing. It
explainsthe processesthatanindividual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational
behavior,expectancytheoryisamotivation theoryfirstproposedby VictorVroomof the Yale School
of Management.
"Thistheoryemphasizesthe needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and
to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients."
VictorH. Vroom(1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms
of voluntaryactivities,aprocesscontrolledbythe individual.The individual makes choices based on
estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or
eventuallyleadtothe desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual’s expectancy that a
certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to
achievingacertainresult,andthe desirabilityof this result for the individual, known as valence. In
1964, Vroomdevelopedthe Expectancytheorythroughhisstudyof the motivationsbehinddecision
making. His theory is relevant to the study of management. Currently, Vroom is a John G. Searle
Professor of Organization and Management at the Yale University School of Management.
Key elements
The ExpectancyTheoryof Motivationexplainsthe behavioral processof whyindividuals choose one
behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the end they
value.Vroomintroducesthree variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), .over
another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy),
performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).
Three componentsof Expectancytheory:Expectancy,Instrumentality,andValence
1. Expectancy:Effort→ Performance (E→P)
2. Instrumentality:Performance → Outcome (P→O)
3. Valence- V(R)

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Expectancy: Effort → Performance (E→P)
Expectancyisthe belief thatone'seffort(E) will resultinattainmentof desiredperformance (P)
goals. It isusuallybasedonan individual'spastexperience,self-confidence (self-efficacy) andthe
perceiveddifficultyof the performance standardorgoal.Thiswill affecthow the individual's
decisionmakingprocessbecausetheywill ultimatelychose behaviorsthatwill insure theirdesired
goals.There are 3 componentsassociatedwiththe individual'sExpectancyperception.Theyare self-
efficacy,goal difficulty,andperceivedcontrol.
1. Self-efficacy- the person’sbeliefabouttheirabilitytosuccessfullyperformaparticularbehavior.
The individual will assesswhethertheyhave the requiredskillsorknowledgedesiredtoachieved
theirgoals.
2. Goal difficulty- whengoalsare settoohighor performance expectationsthatare made too
difficult.Thiswill mostlikely leadtolowexpectancy.Thisoccurswhenthe individual believesthat
theirdesiredresultsare unattainable.
3. PerceivedControl- isone'sbelief intheircontrol overtheirperformance.Inorderforexpectancy
to be high,individualsmustbelieve thattheyhave some degreeof control overthe expected
outcome.If an individual doesnotbelieve theyhave anycontrol overthe outcome the motivationto
increase effortwillbe low.
Some examplesof expectancyinclude-
If I studytonightforan examitwill improve mygrade tomorrow
if I practice my swinginthe battingcages I will performbetterinthe game
Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)
Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is
met.Thisrewardmay come in the formof a pay increase,promotion,recognitionorsense of Factors
associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies. If
individualstrusttheirsuperiors,theyare more likelytobelieve theirleaderspromises.Whenthere is
a lack of trust in leadership, people often attempt to control the reward system. When individuals
believe they have some kind of control over how, when, and why rewards are distributed,
Instrumentalitytendstoincrease.Formalizedwrittenpoliciesimpactthe individuals'instrumentality
perceptions. Instrumentality is increased when formalized policies associate rewards to
performance.
Valence V(R)
Valence:the value anindividualplacesonthe rewardsof anoutcome,whichisbasedon theirneeds,
goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Influential factors include one's values, needs, goals,
preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome. Valence is
characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an
actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome.
The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 →0→ +1
-1= avoiding the outcome 0 = indifferent to the outcome +1 = welcomes the outcome

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In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not
attaining it. The Expectancy Theory of motivation can help managers understand how individuals
make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives, and why they pursue these decisions.
Valence isone behavioralalternative,wherethe decisionismeasured on the value of the reward. If
managementunderstandsthe desired outcomes from their employees, the can design and build a
reward system that is satisfactory. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when
behavior is energized:
Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancyx InstrumentalityxValence
Whendecidingamongbehavioraloptions,individualsselectthe option with the greatest amount of
motivational force (MF). Expectancy andinstrumentality are attitudes(cognitions),whereas valence
is rooted in an individual’s value system.
Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases and bonuses, promotions,
time off, new assignments, recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what their
employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to get the highest
result and effectiveness out of the work place accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the
reward is the same for all performances given.
Expectancy Theory-In Practice
Expectancytheoryhassome importantimplicationsformotivatingemployees. The theory provides
guidelines for enhancing employee motivation by altering the individual’s effort-to-performance
expectancy,performance-to-rewardexpectancy,and rewardvalences.Several practical implications
of expectancy theory are
Increasing Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
Leaders should try to increase the belief that employees are capable of performing the job
successfully. Ways of doing this include: select people with the required skills and knowledge;
provide the required training and clarify job requirements; provide sufficient time and resources;
assign progressively more difficult tasks based on training; eliminate problems that may disturb
effective performance; provide examples of employees who have mastered the task; and provide
coachingto employeeswholack self-confidence.Good leaders not only make it clear to employees
what is expected of them but also help them attain that level of performance.
E-to-Pexpectanciesare influencedbythe individual’sbelief thathe orshe can successfullycomplete
the task. Some companies increase this can do attitude by assuring employees that they have the
necessarycompetencies,clearrole perceptions,andnecessaryresourcestoreachthe desired levels
of performance.Matchingemployeestojob based on their abilities and clearly communicating the
tasks required for the job is an important part of this process. Similarly, E-to-P expectancies are
learnt,sobehavioural modellingandsupportive feedback typicallystrengthenthe individuals belief
that he or she is able to perform the task.

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Increasing Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
Leadersshouldtryto increase the belief thatgoodperformance will result in valued rewards. Ways
of doing so include: measure job performance accurately; describe clearly the rewards that will
result from successful performance; describe how the employee’s rewards were based on past
performance;provide examplesof other employeeswhosegoodperformance hasresultedin higher
rewards.Leaders shouldlinkdirectlythe specificperformance theydesireto the rewards desired by
employees. Compensation mechanisms can be a powerful incentive in linking performance to
rewards.Compensationsystemsthatrewardpeople directly based on how well they perform their
jobs are known as pay-for-performance plans. These may take such forms as “commission plans”
used for sales personnel, “piece-rate systems” used for factory workers and field hands, and
“incentive stockoption(ISO)plans”forexecutive.However,rewardslinkedtoperformance neednot
be monetary.Symbolicandverbal formsof recognition for good performance can be very effective
as well.
P-to-Oexpectanciesare perception,soemployeesshouldbelieve thathigherperformance will result
in higher rewards. Having a performance base reward system is important but this fact must be
communicated. When rewards are distributed, employees should understand how their rewards
have beenbasedonpast performance.More generally, companies need to regularly communicate
the existence of a performance based reward system through examples, anecdotes and public
ceremonies.
Increasing Valences of Outcome
Leadersshould try to increase the expected value of rewards resulting from desired performance.
Ways of doingthisinclude:distribute rewardsthatemployees value.Withademographicallydiverse
workforce,itismisleadingtobelieve thatall employeesdesire the same rewards. Some employees
may value apromotionor a pay raise,whereas othersmaypreferadditionalvacationdays,improved
insurance benefits,daycare,orelder-care facilities.Manycompanieshave introducedcafeteria-style
benefitplans—incentive systemsthatallow employeesto selecttheirfringebenefitsfromamenu of
available alternatives.Anotherissue thatmay surface withexpectancytheoryisthe needforleaders
to minimize the presence of counter valent rewards i.e. performance rewards that have negative
valences.Forexample,groupnormsmaycause some employees to perform their jobs at minimum
levelseventhoughformal rewardsandthe jobitself would otherwise motivate them to perform at
higher levels.
Does Expectancy Theory Fit Reality?
Expectancytheoryremainsone of the better theories for predicting work effort and motivation. In
particular it plays the valuable role by detailing a person’s thinking process when translating the
competingdemandsof the fourdrivesintospecificefforts.Expectancy theory has been applied to a
wide varietyof studentssuch aspredictingstudentmotivationtoparticipate inteachingevaluations,
usinga decisionsupportsystem, leaving the organization, and engaging in organization citizenship
behaviours. Research also indicates that expectancy theory predicts employee motivation in
different cultures.

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One limitation is that expectancy theory seems to ignore the central role of emotion in employee
effort and behaviour. As we learned in today’s workshop emotions serve as an adaptive function
that demands our attention and energizes us to take action. The Valence element of expectancy
theorycapturessome of thisemotional process,butonlyperipherally.Thus,theoristsprobablyneed
to redesign the expectancy theory model in light of new information about the importance of
emotions in motivation and behaviour.

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Goal setting as a means of Motivation
- Jainam Delivala
Walkin almostanycall centre andyou will notice thatperformance isjudgedonseveral metricssuch
as average pickup time (time to answer the call), length of time per call, and abandon
rates(customers who hang up before the call is handled by a customer service representative).for
example one recentsurveyreportedthatthe average pickuptime forcall centers in the united is 35
seconds, the average talk time Is 11 minutes for government and 6.5 minutes for private call
centers, and average time on hold is 33 seconds .some call centers have large electronics boards
showing how many customers are waiting and average time they have been waiting .Employees
some time receive feedback on their computers ,such as the average length of time for each call at
their work station associated with these numbers are specific goals ,and supervisors conduct goal
setting sessions with each employee to help them understand and achieve those objectives
Call centers rely on goal setting and feed back to motivate employees and achieve superior
performance goal settingisthe process of motivatingemployeesandclarifying theirrole perception
by establishing performance objectives. It is potentially improves employee’s
performance intwoways: (1) by stretching the intensity and persistence of effort and (2) by giving
employees clearer role perception so that their effort is channelled towards behaviours that will
improve work performance.
Short time frame, such as reduce scrap rate by 7 percent over the next six months”
Specific goal communicate precise performance expectation so employees can direct their effort
more efficiently and reliably.
Relevant goal s must also be relevant to the individual’s job and within his or her control.
For example, agoal toreduce waste materialswouldhave little value if employees don’t have much
control over waste in the production process.
Characteristics of effective goals
Goal setting is more complex than simply telling someone to “do your best” instead it requires six
conditions tomaximisetask effortand performance: specific goal, relevant goal, challenging goals,
goal commitment, participation in goal formation (sometimes) and goal fed back.
Specificgoals
Employeesputmore effortintotaskwhentheyworktowardsspecificgoal ratherthan“do your
best”targets.Specificgoal have measurablelevelsof change overa specificandrelativelyshorttime
frame.
Relevantgoals
Goalsmust alsobe relevanttothe individual’sjobandwithinhisorhercontrol.Forexample: A Goal
to reduce waste materialswouldhave littlevalue if employeesdon’thave muchcontrol overwaste
inthe productionprocess.

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Challenginggoals
Challenginggoals(ratherthaneasyones) cause peopletoraise the intensityandpersistence of their
workeffortandto thinkthroughinformationmore actively.Theyalso fulfilaperson’sneedfor
achievementorself actualizationneedswhenthe goal isachieved.General Electric,GoldmanSachs,
and manyotherorganizations emphasize stretchgoal.These goalsdon’tjuststretchyourabilities
and motivation:they are goalsthatyoudon’tknow how to reach, so youneedtobe creative to
achieve them.
Goal commitment
Althoughgoal shouldbe challenging,employeesalsoneedtobe committedtoaccomplishinggoals.
Thus we needtofindan optimal level of goal difficultywhere goal are challenging.Yetemployees
are still motivatedtoachieve them.Thisisthe same asthe e to p expectancythatthe goal can been
accomplished,the lesscommitted(motivated) the employee istothe goal.
Goal participation
Goal settingis usually(butnotalways) more effective whenemployees participateinsettinggoals.
Employeesidentifymore withgoal theyare involvedinsettingthangoal assignedbysupervisor.In
fact todaywork force increasinglyexpectstobe involvedingoal settingandotherdecisionsthat
affectthem.Participationmayalsoimprove goal qualitybecauseemployeeshave valuable
informationandknowledgethatmaynot be knownto managerswhodevelopthesegoalsalone.
Thisparticipationensuresthatemployeesbuyintothe goalsandhave the competenciesand
resourcesnecessarytoaccomplishthem.
Goal Feedback
Feedbackis anothernecessaryconditionforeffectivegoal setting.Feedbackisanyinformationthat
people receive aboutthe consequencesof theirbehaviour.Feedbackletusknow whetherwe have
achievedagoal or are properlydirectingourefforttowardsit.Fedbackisalsoessential ingredientin
motivationbecause ourgrowthneedscan’tbe satisfiedunlesswe receive informationaboutgoal
accomplishment.Fedbackiscentral to goal settingthatwe will lookmore closelyatitnext.
CASE STUDY: “Stretch goals send speedera staff to the beach”
Near the end of a recent financial quarter, speedera network 120 employees in Bangalore, India
receivedan enticitingchallenge fromfounderandCEOAjitGupta.”If we pull togetherto achieve our
business targets {for the next quarter} then we will all be on a beach in May.”Employees at the
internetApplicationsCompany(now mergedwithAkmai) even voted on the preferred destination.
Speederawouldcoveremployee expensesaswell as50% of a spouse’sorfamilymember’sexpenses
for four days. Everyone worked feverishly towards the company’s goal, which included a hefty
increase inrevenue.Theirmotivation was further fuelled with constant reminders of the Hawaiian
trip. “The offices were transformed to look like tropical islands” says Gupta. Staff also received
postcards and brouchers with tempting images of the resort and its attractions. Much to everyone
delight the company achieved its goals and Speedera staff from both countries had a memorable
bonding experience on Hawaiian beaches

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Motivation Through Feedback
- Kanan Karwat
Characteristics of effective feedback:-
Feedback is a key ingredient in goal setting and employee performance. It communicates what
behaviour is appropriate or necessary in a particular situation and improves ability by frequently
providinginformationtocorrectperformance problems.Informationidentifiesagapbetweenactual
and ideal performance isknownascorrective feedbackbecause it raises awareness of performance
errors and identifies ways to correct that errors.
Under some circumstances, feedback also motivates employees. This is particularly true when
feedbackispositive,such asthe peer-to-peerrecognitionactivitiesdescribedinthe openingvignette
to this chapter. These recognition programs communicate feedback as rewards, so they have the
double benefit of informing employees about their performance and fulfilling their ne eds.
Constructive feedback can also be motivating when employees have a strong “can-do” attitude
towards the task and a learning orientation.
Many of the characteristicof goal settingalsoapplyto the effective feedback.first, feedback should
be specific. The information provided should be connected to the details of the goal, rather than
subjective and general phrases such as “your sales are going well.” Second, feedback must be
relevant, it must relate to the individual’s behaviour rather than to conditions beyond the
individual’s control. This ensures that the feedback is not distorted by situational factors. Third,
feedbackshouldbe timely;itshouldbe available as soon as possible after the behaviour or results.
Timelinesshelpsemployeessee aclearassociation between their behaviour and its consequences.
The forth,characteristicof effective feedbackisthatitshouldbe credible.Employeesare more likely
to accept the feedback from trustworthy and credible sources.
Finally, feedback should be sufficiently frequent. How frequent is “sufficiently”? The answer
dependsonat leasttwothings.One considerationisthe employee’sknowledge andexperience with
the task. Feedback is a form of reinforcement, so employees working on new task should receive
more frequent corrective feedback because they require more behaviour guidance and
reinforcement.Employeeswhoare repeatingfamiliartaskscan receive less frequent feedback. The
secondfactor ishowlongit takesto complete the task.Feedbackisnecessarily less frequent in jobs
witha longcycle time (executives and scientist) than in jobs with a short cycle time. (grocery store
cashiers).
Sources of feedback:-
Feedbackcanoriginate fromnon social or social sources.Non social providesthe feedbackwithout
communicatingthatinformation.The openingparagraphtothissectionmentionedthatcall centres
have variousformsof non social feedbacksuchaselectronicdisplaysshowinghow manycallersare
waitingandthe average time theyhave been waiting.Manyemployeesseethe resultsof theirwork
effortwhile makingaproductor providingaservice where goodandpoorperformance isfairly
obvious.

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Social sourcesof feedbackinclude supervisors,clients,co-workersandanyone elsewho
communicatesinformationaboutthe employee’s behaviourorresults.Supervisorsinsome call
centres meetwitheachemployee afewtimeseachmonthtoreview monitoredcallsanddiscuss
waysto improve these events.Inmostotherorganizationsemployeesreceiveformal feedback
maybe once or twice eachyear,but informal feedbackoccursmore often.
Multisource feedback:-
Accordingto some estimates,managersatalmostall 500 firmsreceive feedbackabouttheirjob
performance fromafull circle of people,includingdirectreports,bosses,vendors,customersand
partners.Most plansalsogive employeescompletefreedomtochoose whowill rate them.The
multisource feedbacktendstoprovidemostcompleteandaccurate informationthatfeedbackfrom
a supervisoralone.It isparticularlyuseful whenthe supervisorisunable toobservethe employees
behaviourorperformance throughoutthe year.Lowerlevel employeesalsofeel agreatersense of
fairnessandopencommunicationwhentheyare able toprovide upwardfeedbackabouttheirboss’s
performance.
Howevermultisource feedbackalsocreateschallenges.Havingseveral people review somany
workerscan be expensive andtime consuming.Withmultipleopinions,the 360 degree processcan
alsoproduce ambiguousandconflictingfeedback,soemployeesmayrequire guidance tointerpret
the results.A thirdconcernis that peersmayprovide inflatedratherthanaccurate feedbacktoavoid
conflictsoverthe forthcomingyear.A final concernisthatcritical feedbackfrommanypeople can
create emotional reactionsthanif the critical judgmentoriginatesfromjustone person.
Choosing feedback sources:-
With so many sources of feedback – executive coaching, multisource feedback, executive
dashboards,customersurveys,equipmentgauges, nonverbal communicationfromyourboss,andso
on-whichone works best under which conditions? The preferred feedback source depends on the
purpose of the information.Tolearnabouttheirprogress toward goal accomplishment, employees
usuallyprefernon-social feedbacksources,suchascomputerprintoutsorfeedbackdirectlyfromthe
job. This is because information from the non-social sources is considered more accurate than
informationfromsocial sources.Corrective feedback from non-social sources is also less damaging
to self esteem. This is probably just as well because social sources tend to delay negative
information,leave some of itout,anddistortthe bad newsina positive way.Whenemployees want
to improve their self image they seek out positive feedback from social sources. It feels better to
have co-workers say that you are performing the job well than to discover this from a computer
printout.