Rome

1. Roman Republic

2. Connect to Modern life
• Name 10 specific
concepts that are
fundamentally flawed
with our current
system of
government.
• Name 3 solutions to 3
of the 10 problems.

4. Founding of Rome –
The Roman Race
• The tale of Aeneas (The Aeneid)
– Dido at Carthage and other travels (like The Odyssey)
• Historical evidence
– Settlements from 11th
Century BC

5. Founding of Rome –
The City (Kingdom) of Rome
• Romulus and Remus
– Latin princess was Vestal virgin
– Raped by Mars, bore twin boys
– Ordered killed by non-Latin king
– Suckled by a wolf
– Grew and founded a city (753BC)
– Romulus killed Remus
• Historic Evidence
– The Etruscans conquered the
Romans (non-Latin king)
– Romans eventually overthrew
Etruscans and established
kingdom
– Ruins of home of king (Romulus?)
date from 8th
Century BC

6. Founding of Rome –
The Roman Race
• Wars against the Latins (like The Illiad)
• Rape of the Sabine Women (Jacques Louis David)

7. Regal Period
• Began with war of
independence from
Etruscans (500 BC)
– War heroes exhibit desired
qualities of Romans
– Horatio at the bridge (Oath of
the Horatii by Jacques Louis
David)
– Stories became legends for
Romans throughout their
history
– Compare to American War of
Independence
• Regal period
– Ruled by 7 kings
– Revolted against last king to
found the republic

8. Republican Government
• Ruled by a senate and the people
– SPQR= Senate and the People of
Rome
Senātus Populusque Rōmānus
– Senate (patricians) appointed
consuls (1 year)
• Foreign affairs and the military
• Direct access by the people to the
consul
– People (plebs) organized by tribes,
electing10 tribunes
• Governed local affairs
• Had veto power (individually)

9. Roman Republic
• Rome conquered
Greece 150 BC
• Romans took on
much Greek culture
– Gods and goddesses
parallel each other
– Gods had Indo-
European roots

10. Government
Comparisons with US
government
– Balance of power
– Senate and House of
Representatives
– Consul (= president)
– Tribune (veto power)
– Courts (independent)
– Military power (?)
– Censor (?)

11. Military Organization
• Centuries — 100 armed men
– Headed by Centurion (from the
ranks)
• Maniples—3 Centuries
– Could move quickly through difficult
terrain (better than phalanx)
– Independent decisions (tribunes)
• Legions—groups of Maniples
– 6000 men
– Supported by light cavalry
• Discipline
– Death for individual insubordination
– Decimation for cowardice

12. Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”
from Rome, Italy
ca. 75 B.C.E.

13. CharacteristicsCharacteristics
1.1. During the Republic –During the Republic – TempleTemple
ArchitectureArchitecture::
K blended Etruscan & Greekblended Etruscan & Greek
features.features.
K emphasis on the front ofemphasis on the front of
the building.the building.
K example: Temple ofexample: Temple of
Fortuna VirilisFortuna Virilis..

14. Characteristics
2. CONCRETE:
created a revolution in architectural
design.
create larger, heavier buildings.
* example:
- The Sanctuary of
Fortuna Primigenia.

15. Sanctuary
of Fortuna Primigenia, Praeneste. Early 1st
cent. BCE

16. Warm-Up: Timed Write, 10/1/12
• 10 minutes:
– Identify and fully attribute the
following artwork. Discuss the
characteristics that place the
sculpture in this period and
how it differs from the
sculpture of the preceding
period.

17. CharacteristicsCharacteristics
of Roman Sculptureof Roman Sculpture
1.1. Collectors and copiers of GreekCollectors and copiers of Greek
works [more idealistic].works [more idealistic].
2.2. More realism [show the wrinkles,More realism [show the wrinkles,
the bulges, and ageing!]the bulges, and ageing!]
3.3. Focus on Roman political heirarchyFocus on Roman political heirarchy
4.4. Emphasis on Military history and might.Emphasis on Military history and might.
More propagandistic and pragmatic thanMore propagandistic and pragmatic than
the isolated classicism of Greecethe isolated classicism of Greece

18. Head of a Roman patrician
ca. 75-50 B.C.E.
marble
approximately 1 ft. 2 in. high

19. Portrait of a Roman General
Tivoli, Italy
ca. 75 - 50 B.C.E.
marble
6 ft. 2 in. high
The sculptor based
this life-size portrait
of a general on
idealized Greek
statues of heroes
and athletes, but
the man’s head is
a veristic likeness.
The eclectic combination
is typical of Republican art.

20. Republican CoupleRepublican Couple
 Realistic portraits – like Hellenistic Greek style.Realistic portraits – like Hellenistic Greek style.

21. Mosaics on aMosaics on a
Roman Villa FloorRoman Villa Floor

22. Dinarius
with Portrait of Julius Caesar
44 B.C.E.
silver
3/4 in.

23. Amphitheater
Pompeii, Italy
ca. 80 B.C.E.

24. First Style wall painting
fauces of the Samnite House,
Herculaneum, Italy
late 2nd century B.C.E.
fresco

25. Dionysiac mystery frieze
Room 5, Pompeii, Italy
ca. 60-50 B.C.E.
fresco
frieze approximately 64 in. high

27. Cubiculum (bedroom)
from the villa of P. Fannius Synistor
Boscoreale, Italy
ca. 40-30 B.C.E.
fresco

28. Gardenscape
from the Villa of Livia, Primaporta, Italy
ca. 30-20 B.C.E.
fresco
approximately 79 in. high

29. Gardenscape
from the Villa of Livia, Primaporta, Italy
ca. 30-20 B.C.E.
fresco
approximately 79 in. high

30. still life with peaches
Detail of 4th style wall painting
from Herculaneum, Italy
ca. 62-79 C.E.
fresco
approximately 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 1 1/2 in.

35. Roman Expansion (in Italy)
• Conquest of Italy
– Took 200 years
– Granted full or partial citizenship
• Tax and legal benefits
• Developed loyalty in conquered
Italian areas
– Invasion by King Pyrrhus (pyrrhic
victory)
• Roman colonies
– Established in strategic locations
– Established by treaty
– Troops sent when needed
– Customs of the area left intact
– Colonies were mostly for trade,
with some military purposes

37. Roman Expansion (outside
Italy)
• Punic Wars (246-146
BCE)
– Rome had conquered
Carthage's empire and
completely destroyed the
city
– Rome is the most
powerful state of the
Western Mediterranean.

38. Roman Expansion (outside
Italy)
• Conquest of the East and
West
– Allies rather than servants or
slaves
– Toleration
– Corruption in the Greek
kingdoms
– Some states given to the
Romans
– Fast, direct attacks with
strong determination and
discipline
– Outnumbered in most battles
– Victory over Parthia (parthian
shot)

39. Building an Empire
• Structure of the "empire"
– Still a republican form of government
– Checks and balances
– Two parties emerged
• Optimares (conservatives, Cato and Cicero)
• Populares (power to people)
• Family
• Values (according to the Romans)
– Piety
– Discipline
– Frugality
– Not greedy
– Righteous wars
– Never quit

40. Building an Empire
• Status of Women
– Absence of men at war
– Women gained economic
power
– Ability to divorce and retain
property
– Morals eventually eroded,
in part because home-life
eroded

41. Building an Empire
• Slavery
– Conquests increased
the number of slaves
– Constituted 40% of
the population
– Conditions were poor
– Romans feared slave uprising
– Slaves took jobs from the plebs so plebs
were given food and other benefits

42. Collapse of the Republic
• Gracchus brothers (163-133 BCE)
– Attempts to reform agrarian society, promote general welfare and stop
abuse of landowners sent to war
– Response: Violence used to create political turmoil and destroy
populace uprisings.
• Marius (157-86 BCE)
– Re-election to consulate, career politician (7 times)
– Standing army, recruiting landless citizens
– Began the motions towards consolidation of miltiary power under
a general (above senate)
• Sulla (138-78 BCE)
– Assumption of dictator powers
– Use of the army to override councils
– Rivaled Marius and Marched on Rome twice.

43. Julius Caesar
100-44 BC
• Early Life
– Born to aristocratic family
• Caesarian section
• Legend that he descended from the gods
– Known for partying and sexual appetite
– Captured by pirates and held for ransom
• Returned to area and killed pirates
– Appointed to a series of government jobs
• Statue of Alexander

44. Julius Caesar
• Triumvirate
– Praised for his work in Spain
– Appointed governor in Gaul (conquest)
– Alliance with Crassus and Pompey to form the
triumvirate (not initially, but later elected)
– Rivalry with Pompey after death of Crassus
• Crossing the Rubicon
– Defeated Pompey, returned to Rome
• Veni, vidi, vici—I came, I saw, I conquered
– Conquest of Egypt
• Cleopatra

45. Julius Caesar
• Returned to Rome as a conquering hero
– Procession for each territory on a different day
(Gaul, Africa, Spain, Asia) and games for many
additional days
– Offered crown (as emperor) twice and refused
it when people didn't respond favorably
• Dictator (rule by one man)
– Appointed for 10 years and then for life
– Caesar’s plans for Rome
• Calendar (July)
• Libraries, theaters, other public works
• Gave citizenship to people in Spain and Gaul
• Giving grain to the poor

46. Julius Caesar
• Murder of Caesar
– Killed by senatorial
opponents
– Instigated by his
usurpation of power and
their fear that he would
become emperor
– Died March 15, 44 BC
• Stabbed by 20 senators
• Brutus—illegitimate son
– Mark Anthony and
Octavian
• Rallied against the
conspirators

47. Collapse of the Republic
• Violence used to eliminate
enemies and impose one’s will
– Gracchus
• Re-election to consulate
(many times) and standing
army
– Marius
• Assumption of dictator
powers, use of the army to
override councils, proscription
list
– Sulla

49. Building an Empire
• Economics
– Not enough land to support the
people
– Farmers were needed and respected
– Acquisition of wheat and other foods
became a priority
– Victory over Carthage provided
more land
– Rome was a consumer
– Trading profits made many Romans
rich
– Extremes of wealth and poverty
– Citizens did not have to pay taxes

50. Caesar Augustus
• 63 BC-14 AD
• Octavian was winner of 18
years civil war
• Designated heir of Julius
Caesar
• Was of the family of Caesar
(adopted) so he took the
name Caesar
• Given the name Augustus
by the Senate

51. Caesar Augustus
• Beginning the Empire
– Marked by the reign of Octavian
– Returned to principles of the republic (in
theory)
– But, created important changes to make it
work
• Senate received power of nominal governing
• Allowed free elections
• Accepted title “princeps civitatis” or first
citizen ("prince")
– Initially offered to retire to private life
• Held a variety of jobs but ruled effectively
regardless of position
– Auctoritas = prestige, power from trust,
influence
– Who else has had this kind of power?
– How does a leader get this kind of power?

52. Portrait of Augustus as general
from Primaporta, Italy
ca. 20 B.C.E.
marble
80 in. high

53. Portrait of Augustus as general
from Primaporta, Italy
ca. 20 B.C.E.
marble
80 in. high

54. Head of Caesar Augustus
ca. 100 C.E.
marble with traces of polychrome

55. Caesar Augustus
– Augustinian Code
• Roman Law was rewritten and
solidified
• Basis of western laws today
• Equity
– Honest government
– Added to the road system
• 53,000 miles of paved roads
– Postal system and other city
infrastructure
– Standard currency system
– Improved harbors

56. Caesar Augustus
• Military
– Reduced the size but
created a permanent army
– Territorial expansion
• Purpose: to consolidate
boundaries, ensure peace
• Generalship given to loyalists—Agrippa and Tiberius
• German defeat/consolidation (Herman the German)
• Central Europe and the Balkans expansion
• Spain consolidation
• Africa, annexation of Egypt
– Pax Romana
• 60 million people in peace for more than 200 years

57. Caesar Augustus
• Worship of
“Roma et Augustus”
– Allowed the east and west
unity of worship (each in
their own way)
– Didn’t push worship so as to
not alienate local worship

58. Warm-Up 10/5/12
• Take your voussoirs (chinese take-
out box) and attempt to construct
a Roman Arch in teams
• Determine how many people you
need.
• Write: Determine what obstacles
you face, and how to overcome
• Write: Hypothesize on how the
arch works. What forces are at
work?

59. Barrel orBarrel or
“Tunnel” Vault“Tunnel” Vault
• Windows can beWindows can be
placed at any point.placed at any point.
• These vaults requireThese vaults require
buttressing tobuttressing to
counter-act thecounter-act the
downward thrust ofdownward thrust of
weight.weight.

60. arch-physics.swf

61. Types of Vaults and Domes
Roman concrete
construction. (a) barrel vault,
(b) groin vault, (c) fenestrated
sequence of groin vaults,
(d) hemispherical dome with
oculus (John Burge).
A
B
C
D

62. Groin VaultGroin Vault
• Also called a crossAlso called a cross
vault.vault.
• Needs lessNeeds less
buttressing.buttressing.

63. Multi Groin VaultsMulti Groin Vaults
• A series of groin vaultsA series of groin vaults
can have open lateralcan have open lateral
arches that formarches that form
Clerestories.Clerestories.
• Windows that allowWindows that allow
light into the interiorlight into the interior
of churches.of churches.
• These concrete windowsThese concrete windows
are fireproof [anare fireproof [an
important considerationimportant consideration
since many earlysince many early
churches burned!]churches burned!]

64. Ara Pacis Augustae
Rome, Italy
ca. 13-9 B.C.E.
marble
63 in. high

65. Ara Pacis Augustae
Rome, Italy
ca. 13-9 B.C.E.
marble
63 in. high

66. Ara Pacis Augustae
Rome, Italy
ca. 13-9 B.C.E.
marble
63 in. high

67. Ara Pacis Augustae
Rome, Italy
ca. 13-9 B.C.E.
marble
63 in. high

68. Ara Pacis Augustae
Rome, Italy
ca. 13-9 B.C.E.
marble
63 in. high

70. Caesar Augustus
• Succession
– No male heir
– Adopted nephew, Tiberius
– Smooth transition of leadership
– Stable leadership despite inept
emperors
• Tiberius took the title "emperor" and
all successors did the same
• Succession was a problem for the
entire time of the empire

71. The Roman Empire

72. Julio-Claudians
• Emperors who succeeded Caesar for 50
years
• Tiberius (14-37 CE)
– Ruled well if somewhat ineffective
– Retired due to opposition
• Caligula (37-41 CE)
– Insane
– Killed by troops
• Claudius (41-54)
– Good administrator
– Uncomfortable around people (lame and
stuttered)
• Nero (54-68 CE)
– Mother killed Claudius for Nero
– Nero killed his mother
– Seneca and Burrus (advisors, died from
Nero pressure)
– Revolt and burning of the city
– Committed suicide

73. Theater of Pompey, Region IX Circus Flaminius. 55 BCE

74. Roman TheaterRoman Theater

75. Vatican Obelisk, 37 CE
Circus Maximus, 326 BCE

76. End of Julio-Claudians
• Four Claimants (69
AD)
– Galba, Otho,
Vitellius, Vespasian
• All generals
• Vespasian defeated
the others and
became emperor
• Vespasian founded
the Flavian Dynasty

77. Flavians
• 69-96 AD
• Vespasian, Titus,
Domitian
– Reasonably good
administrators
– First non-Patrician Caesar
• Suppression of the
Jewish revolt
– Destruction of Jerusalem
– Masada
– Timing—70 AD

78. Roman Coliseum (70 CE)Roman Coliseum (70 CE)
"the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to
be erected from his general's share of the booty

79. Interior of the ColiseumInterior of the Coliseum
 ArenaArena is Latin for the sand, coating the flooris Latin for the sand, coating the floor
that soaks up the blood of the combatants.that soaks up the blood of the combatants.

82. Colosseum
Rome, Italy
ca. 70-80 C.E.

83. Colosseum
Rome, Italy
ca. 70-80 C.E.

97. Spartacus
(Kirk Douglas)
Gladiator
(Russell Crowe)

99. Arch of Titus
Rome, Italy
81 C.E.

100. Roman BathRoman Bath
in England (60 CE)in England (60 CE)

106. Via Appia, 312 BCEVia Appia, 312 BCE
All roads lead to Rome!All roads lead to Rome!

107. I t h as t o en d so mew h er e…

109. Pont-du-Gard
Nimes, France
ca. 16 B.C.E.

110. Pont-du-Gard
Nimes, France
ca. 16 B.C.E.

114. Aqueduct in SegoviaAqueduct in Segovia

115. Portrait bust of a Flavian woman
from Rome, Italy
ca. 90 C.E.
marble
25 in. high

116. Atrium of the House of the Vettii,
Pompeii, Italy, rebuilt 62–79 ce.
Roman townhouses had a
central atrium with an
impluvium to collect
rainwater. Cubicula (bedrooms)
opened onto the atrium, and in
Hellenized houses such as this
one, builders added a peristyle
garden at the rear.

117. (1) fauces, (2) atrium, (3) impluvium, (4) cubiculum, (5) ala, (6)
tablinum, (7) triclinium, (8) peristyle

118. Age of the Adoptive Emperors
• 96-193 AD
• The Golden Age of Rome
• 5 good and 1 bad emperor
– Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian,
Antoninus Pous, Marcus
Aurelius, Commodus
– None were power hungry
except Commodus
• Façade of constitutionality
• Hadrian separated the civil
services from the army
– Army changed from greater
mobility to maintenance

119. The Golden Age (100-180AD)
• Life in the Golden Age
– Rome was largest city in the
ancient world
– Extravagant entertainment
– Prosperity through trade
and population expansion
• After the Golden Age
– Good and bad emperors
• Unsuited for governance
• Many boy emperors
Gladiator

120. Arch of Trajan, Benevento, Italy, ca.
114–118 ce.
Unlike Titus’s arch,
Trajan’s has relief panels
covering both
facades,transforming it
into a kind of advertising
billboard featuring the
emperor’s many
achievements on and off
the battlefield.

121. Pantheon
Rome, Italy
ca. 118-125 C.E.

122. Pantheon
Rome, Italy
ca. 118-125 C.E.

123. The Pantheon PlansThe Pantheon Plans

124. Pantheon
Rome, Italy
ca. 118-125 C.E.

125. Pantheon
Rome, Italy
ca. 118-125 C.E.

126. The Pantheon InteriorThe Pantheon Interior
Painting byPainting by
GiovanniGiovanni
Paolo PanniniPaolo Pannini
(18c)(18c)

131. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
from Rome, Italy
ca. 175 C.E.
bronze
11 ft. 6 in. high

132. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
from Rome, Italy
ca. 175 C.E.
bronze
11 ft. 6 in. high

134. Al-Khazneh
Petra, Jordan
2nd century C.E.

135. ColumnColumn
OfOf
TrajanTrajan
113 CE113 CE

136. Base Relief LegionnairesBase Relief Legionnaires
on Trajan’s Columnon Trajan’s Column

138. Portrait Bust of Trajan Decius
Capitolino, Rome
249-251 C.E.
marble
2 ft. 7 in. high

139. Portrait of Carcalla
ca. 211-217 C.E.
marble
14 in. high

140. Asiatic Sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman
165-170 C.E.
marble
approximately 5 ft. 7 in. high

141. Sarcophagus of a Philosopher
270-280 C.E.
marble
4 ft. 11 in. high

142. Third Century Disaster
• Near collapse of the
empire
– Military-oriented emperors
– Threat from consolidated
Germans
– 24 emperors and 24
claimants/usurpers
• 45 killed by assassination
(usually by their own troops)
• 1 died in battle
• 1 died in captivity
• 1 died of plague
– Name of a Caesar reflects
self-importance

143. Diocletian
• 284-305 AD
• Ruled by decree
– Stabilized the empire
– Strong general with army
support
– Imposed will on
governmental agencies
– Unity
• Worship of emperor as a
mark of loyalty
• Persecution of the Christians
– About non-participation and
separateness
– Not about beliefs

144. Diocletian
• Divided the empire for better administration
– Tetrarchy (2 Augusti, 2 Caesars)
– Diocletian retired, forced Maximiam to retire
– Chaos followed

145. Portraits of the four tetrarchs
St. Mark’s, Venice
ca. 305 C.E.
porphyry
51 in. high

146. Palace of Diocletian (model)
Split, Croatia
ca. 300 - 305 C.E.

147. Constantine
• 306-337 AD
• Constantine’s father succeeded
Maximian as Augustus
• Succeeded his father as Caesar
• Became 1 of 7 claimants for control
• Fought wars to decide emperor
– Vision of a burning Christian symbol (chi-
rho)
– United the troops and gave them courage
that "a god" wanted them to win (most
were pagans and accepted the protection
of any god)

148. Constantine
• Constantinople
– Built on Byzantium site
• Acceptance of Christianity
– Edict of Milan
• Eliminated religious contention
• Supported Christian religions
– St. Helena, churches
• Supported pagan religions
– Coins, inscriptions, built temples
– Nicaean council (325 AD)
• Sought to unify doctrine
• Used imperial troops to suppress
dissent among Christians
(Donatists)
• Conversion or unity?

149. Portrait of Constantine
from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy
ca. 315-330 C.E.
marble
head approximately 8 ft. 6 in. high

151. Portrait of Constantine
from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy
ca. 315-330 C.E.
marble
head approximately 8 ft. 6 in. high

153. Arch of Constantine
Rome, Italy
ca. 312-315 C.E.

154. Arch of Constantine
Rome, Italy
ca. 312-315 C.E.

156. Aula Palatina (Basilica)
Trier, Germany
early 4th century C.E.

157. Aula Palatina (Basilica)
Trier, Germany
early 4th century C.E.

158. Aula Palatina (exterior),
Trier, Germany, early fourth
century ce.

159. Aula Palatina (Basilica)
Trier, Germany
early 4th century C.E.

160. Arch of Constantine
Rome, Italy
ca. 312-315 C.E.

162. Restored cutaway view of the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy,
ca. 306–312 ce (John Burge).
The lessons learned in the construction of baths and market halls were
applied to the Basilica Nova, where fenestrated concrete groin vaults
replaced the clerestory of a traditional stone-and-timber basilica.

163. Post-Constantine Period
• Theodocius I
– Strongest post-Constantine emperor
– Instituted Christianity as state religion
– Goths joined army to fight against Huns
– Revolt in Thessalonica (7000 killed)
• This was the first confrontation between the
church and the state
• Theodocius I forced to beg forgiveness (St.
Ambrose)

164. Post-Constantine Period
• Ravenna
– Rome full of crime, decayed morals
– Capital moved to Ravenna
• Persians (Parthians)
– Attacked eastern providence
– Overran the local Roman army
– Reinforcement moved to defend
the east which weakened the
west

165. Post-Constantine Period
• Huns
– Central base in
Hungary
– Warriors feared by
Romans and Germans
– Attila—last leader
• Invaded Gaul
– Defeated in 451 AD by a combined army
– Moved into Italy and defeated again
– Withdrew to Hungary

166. Post-Constantine Period
• Barbarians (illiterate and non-urban)
– Settled in Roman territory after pressure from
the Huns
– Goths split into two groups
• Ostrogoths—eastern Europe
• Visigoths—moved to Dacia (Romania)
– Allowed to live on Roman land
• Barbarians compatible with Romans
• Visigoths revolted after unfair taxing
• Theodosius the Great bought off the Visigoths

167. Post-Constantine Period
• Theodoric the Great
– Chief over the Ostrogoths
– Conquered Odoacer and
declared himself king of Rome
• Bothius
– Writer who summarized Euclid,
Archimedes, Ptolemy, and
Aristotle into Latin
• The Ostrogoths’ reign
– Ended shortly after Theodoric’s death
• The eastern part of the empire lasted
1000 years

168. Fall of the Roman Empire
• West had longer barbarian frontier
• Persians civilized and signed treaties
• East had money to pay off invaders
• Eastern boundaries easier to defend
• Constantinople a fortress city

169. Barbarian Invasions

170. The End of Antiquity
• The fall of the Roman empire
traditionally marks the end of the
period of Antiquity
• Upcoming time periods
– Middle Ages/Renaissance
– Byzantine empire
– Moslem empire

171. “A close study of each of these dead civilizations
indicates that they usually started on their road
to glory because of fortuitous circumstances
exploited by a strong, inspiring leader. The
nation then carried on for a period under its own
momentum. Finally, creeping vanity led the
people to become enamored of their undisputed
superiority; they became so impressed with their
past achievements that they lost interest in
working for further change. Soon their sons,
coddled in the use of all the great things their
fathers and grandfathers had pioneered, became
as helpless as new-born babes when faced with
the harsh reality of an aggressive and changing
world.”
—Eugene K. Von Fange, Professional Creativity

176. UNDERSTANDING THE FORUM
Interactive Map Activity

177. Tour of the Forum

178. The Forum: Ariel View

191. Basilica Nova reconstruction drawing
Rome, Italy
306-312 C.E.