Motivation -Factors of Learning Learning Process Stages of Learning Principles of Learning Basic Principles Learning Theories

1. Health Education
ANY COMBINATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES DESIGNED TO HELP
INDIVIDUALS AND COMMUNITIES IMPROVE THEIR HEALTH, BY INCREASING
THEIR KNOWLEDGE OR INFLUENCING THEIR ATTITUDES.

2. Motivation
The teacher needs to determine the best way to encourage her students to learn and
keep them motivated throughout the teaching-learning process. It is only when the
student remains motivated in Learning that learning takes place.

3. Motivation defined:
Motivation is the process by which an individual creates an inner drive to accomplish
goals or objectives. It is something within an individual such as need, idea, physiologic
state, or emotions that incite him or her to action.
Motivation is the practical art of applying incentives and arousing interest for purposes
of causing a student to perform in a desired way. It usually designates the act of
choosing a study material and present them in a way that appeals to student’s
interests and causes them to willingly work and complete this with sustained
enthusiasm.

4. The term “motivation” is used to refer to
devices and activities that the teacher may
employ to bring about increased or active
learning.
In a strict sense, the teacher does not use
direct motivation, but rather she arranges
the environment, utilizes activities and
various devices to help motivate students to
learn.

5. Purposes of motivation
Teacher motivate their students to learn through the following purposes:
 To arouse the desire to achieve a goal
 To stimulate action to accomplish a particular objective
 To cause a student to perform in a desired way
 To arouse interest thereby making a student simply work willingly and to complete
tasks
 To use various incentives such as the offering of rewards or an appeal to the desire
to excel
 To stimulate an individual to follow certain direction desired for learning

6. Types of motivation
1. Intrinsic Motivation
This type of motivation occurs when the learner wants to learn for the sake of
learning. If is based on personal motives and consists of self-generated factors that
influence individuals to behave in a particular way, or to move to a particular direction.
This involves factors such as:
 Heredity
 Instinctual drive
 Personal philosophy, vision, and mission in life
 Desire for recognition
 Desire to serve others

7. Intrinsic motivation creates a sense of responsibility or feeling that learning is
important and having control over one’s own resources, autonomy, or freedom to act,
methods to use and develop skills and abilities, interests and challenges in work and
opportunities for advancement.

8. Students may become more motivated to learn by understanding more about their
own strengths and weaknesses as learners. However, the influence of heredity and
inherited traits, interaction of personality, and cognitions affects maturation of the
learners to learn.

9. 2. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when the learner wants to learn for reasons other than
his or her own personal interest. Extrinsic motivation is based on social motives
which may include:
• Rewards such as high grades,
• increased pay,
• praise or promotion,
• as well as Punishment,
• such as disciplinary action,
• low grades,
• withholding pay and
• criticism.

10. Both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation are within a learner. It is only the learner
who provides and activates theses motivators. Intrinsic motivators tend to have a
deeper and more long-term effect than extrinsic motivators.

11. Motivational factors of learners
Learners are people easily affected by stimuli, they be intrinsic or extrinsic. The learning
process is initiated and facilitated by several factors depending on the strength to which
these motivate or affect the extent of learning outcomes.

12. 1. Psychosocial needs
Psychosocial needs arise from the individual because she is part of a social setting.
Learning takes place within oneself, but enhanced when a student is within a group of
learners.
Like for example the difference in learning outcomes when a student does a home
study program, isolating herself from interacting with other students, compared to a
student learning in a regular class interacting with her classmates and teachers. These
needs are not purely biological but represents the educative forces which any social
setting exercises in one’s physical and mental make-up.

13. According to heidgerken (1971) the teacher should be
concerned with the following:
a. Security. A student learns best if she knows that the
learning environment is safe from risk factors such as
fire, floods, collapsible buildings, and burglars, among
other.
b. Anxiety. This is a feeling of concern or worry about
some anticipated event which seem to involve some
danger to the individual learning process such as
assignments, course requirements, and RLE.
c. Frustration. A student has the feeling of blocking or
frustrating to achieve a goal because of some barriers
or constraints in the learning process.

14. c. Independence. The need to achieve a status of self-
sufficiency, which arises from the individuality of each
learner. Achieving selfhood is a strong and positive
motivational force.
d. Actualization. This is the fulfillment of one’s
personality potential. Few men can achieve this status,
some are constrained by opportunities to excel both
from within and outside the organization.
e. Assertion. The overt manifestation of one’s
personality to speak for oneself, her ideas, opinions, and
feelings in a respectful manner without creating enemies.
Assertion also arises from the basic need to display one’s
personality to oneself and others.

15. f. Achievement. The need to attain some worthwhile
goals, the degree of which varies from one person to
another. Often, this need is described in terms of levels of
aspiration, which are determined largely by an individual’s
self-concept.
g. Recognition. This refers to acknowledgement
by others of one’s achievement in some activity.
Ryan (2003) posits that recognition pleases an
individual which inspires her to accomplish tasks
that benefit herself and other for a common good.
(ex. Florence nightingale: mother of modern
nursing)

16. h. Participation. It is sharing experiences and
activities with others. Since man is a social
being. She has an inner need to be
accepted as a member of the group.
i. Interest. This is a conscious awareness of
an inner desire for some object which has
concern or importance to an individual.
j. Religious need. The individual’s inner
requirement for God. Some scholars have
long recognized this need as one of man’s
most important needs.

17. 2. Incentives
Incentives refers to the use of praise, reproof, competition, knowledge results,
quizzes, grades, among others, to initiate and sustain motivation.
a. Praise and Reproof
Everyone, regardless of an individual’s demographic profile, psychologically craves for
recognition or approval from others which may encourage or discourage the individual
to pursue higher tasks.

18. b. Competition is urging oneself to take action to achieve a certain objective in
order to prove one’s capability or excellence. It entails motivating oneself to
perform a task better than others. However, an individual may choose to
compete with others or with herself as a form of motivation to improve or
further enhance her knowledge and skills.

19. Three kinds of competition:
 Competition wherein an individual is one of the group that competes with another
group
 Competition wherein an individual competes with other individuals in the same
group
 self-competition wherein an individual compete against her own record.

20. c. Knowledge of progress
Student must be kept informed of their
progress through self evaluation, assignment,
tests and examinations and through
conferences with teachers. It strengthens the
learner’s determination to reach the goal that
she has set for herself.

21. d. School Marks (grades)
School marks stimulate school work
to a greater degree than other
forms of motivation. School marks
are used as basis for grading and
offer a powerful stimulus to induce
learning activities.

22. e. Game or Play
The desire to play, when properly stimulated and
directed, will facilitate learning and maintain
interest. Play is an incentive for learning and a
great factor in physical and mental development.
f. Examination
Examination has a motivating value. Examination
creates drive among students to prepare and
review in order to attain a passing mark.

23. g. Dean’s List
To be in dean’s list is a motivation itself. It gives a student sense of recognition
and pride. However, this type of motivation appeals only to bright students.

24. h. Material Rewards
The use of material rewards helps motivate students to
learn. However, there are drawback in the use of
material rewards, such as:
 It is necessary to increase rewards periodically to
sustain and maintain motivation to learn
 Students may think that the attainment of material
reward is the primary goal.
 Other kinds of incentives maybe as effective or more
effective and do not lead to relegate learning to a
secondary position.

25. i. Punishment
Punishment is used as a form of extrinsic
motivation. Traditionally, punishment has been
assumed to accomplish the following:
 Teach the learner respect for authority
 Block undesirable responses
 Force the learner to do something he was not ready
to do or did not want to do.
 Set an example for potential offender
 Make the student pay attention to class work
 Motivate students to learn assigned material

26. The Learning Process
Although there are number of different learning theories, there is considerable
agreement among educators that learning is essentially a changed behavior brought
about by exposure to various stimuli and that certain elements must be accomplished
for learning to take place.

27. Following is the learning process:
1. Learning occurs from the point-of-view of the end-result or outcome of
teaching.
2. Learning as a process is more concerned with what happens during the
course of learning than in the end-results of learning.
3. Learning is also described as function.

28. Stages of Learning
The following stages and characteristics of learning were adapted from the theory of
Dreyfus as cited by Patricia Benner:
Novice
Advanced beginner
Competent
Proficient
Expert
1. Novice
 Has awareness of the subject area, but only in terms of abstract concepts and ideas
 Possess little to no ability to put into practice in a reliable way
 Follows a set of rules without regard for context in learning

29. 2. Advance Beginner
• Has attained marginal learning to an acceptable performance level after coping
with real experiences
 Begins to understand the scope of the subject area and acknowledge her lack of
knowledge about the discipline.
 Able to apply tools, processes, and principles in contexts similar to well defined
cases they have studied

30. 3. Competent
• Attained learning after exposure to a working knowledge of a number of situations
making up the subject
 New skills and capabilities are internalized with the ability to go beyond rule-bound
procedures in a more complex setting
 Capable of adapting their learning to varying situations by analyzing changed
circumstances and choices of alternatives

31. 4. Proficient
• Has gained from experiences in different situations
 Tools and concepts have been internalized and can be applied to a variety of
situations without much effort
 Has an intuitive, holistic grasp of a situation without having to ignore the problem
prior to determining a solution

32. 5. Expert
 Has fully internalized both perception and action into their normal work
processes

33. Elements of the Learning Process
1. Goal
The teacher must set long-term goals with his or her students such as to acquire
nursing knowledge, professional values and skills. This is followed by specifying
learning objectives to motivate student.
The teacher can help the student by:
a. Being available for guidance and as a resource person to the student; and
b. Encouraging the student to apply problem solving and “critical thinking” to a
given situation.

34. 2. Stimuli
Stimuli increase the ability of the student to recognize the patient’s specific needs in
relation to the overall problem of the patient.
The teacher can help the student reach his or her goals by:
a. Helping the students identify patient needs
b. Selecting and arranging a learning situation which will give the student
• Maximum opportunity to learn
• To identify, analyze, and meet nursing problems
• To motivate a patient to develop self-reliant behavior

35. 3. Perception
The student is capable to appraise nursing situations using her sense and forming insights
by:
a. Observing the patient’s physical and psychological condition;
b. Reading the patient’s chart and nurses notes; and
c. Talking with the patient and her doctor, and other personnel involved in patient care and
finally, her instructor.

36. The teacher can help the student improve perceptual ability through:
a. Assisting the student in discussing the patient’s problem
b. Providing the necessary cues, to analyze patient needs and problems
c. Identifying and interpreting the patient’s nursing needs, and
Directing her attention to critical elements regarding nurse-patient relationship.

37. 4. Response
The student identifies patient care needs and formulates an appropriate nursing care
plan. She also takes effort to communicate with her patients and disseminate
information through health teaching regarding nursing care needs and home care
The teacher can help the student respond well to patient care needs through:
a. Checking student’s ncp
b. Helping her decide priorities of care
c. Giving support and encouragement
d. Helping student realize that the nursing problem may require different approaches
before it can be solved
e. More time may be needed before very tangible results can be obtained

38. 5. Consequences
This refers to the outcome of nursing care rendered to the patient, the expected
effects, the side effects or adverse reactions to nursing interventions performed by the student.

39. 6. Integration
The student utilizes personal knowledge and experiences to solve current problems. She
may also make use of other courses offered throughout the curriculum as basis for
designing her nursing care plan.
The teacher can help the student integrate past learning by:
a. Encouraging the student to examine past nursing knowledge and experiences for
validity and reliability
b. Identifying what nursing care measures were done to the patient; and
c. Making conscious use of the nursing knowledge and the skills she had acquired in
nursing for a particular patient and or other patients.

41. Theories of Learning and their Implications
• Learning theories are guidelines or principles that direct an individual to
understand the meaning of an event or situation.
• Theories provide basic knowledge that underpin the teaching learning process.
Theories and practice are interrelated.
• They explain the relationship of each other since without theories, there can be no
practice and practice can be irrelevant without theories.

42. Basic principles of learning
1. Satisfying stimulus
If response to a stimulus is satisfying to oneself, the tendency for this is to be
repeated under similar circumstances. The behavior is reinforced, developed, and
internalized.
2. Reinforcement
Immediate, positive, tangible or intangible reinforcement through praise, reward,
or recognition are major conditions for successful behavioral change.
Negative reinforcement slows down the rate at which behavior occurs but does not
eliminate it. However, frequent negative reinforcement may either suppress or
demotivate the learner causing unhealthy behavior or impaired learning process.

43. 3. Overlearning
This increases memory and improves learning performance. Frequent
application of the learned principles into practice strengthens the learning
process
4. Verbal and non-verbal associations
A critical prerequisite to behavior change is the establishment of verbal and
nonverbal associations. Knowledge put into practice provides a significant
meaning of interrelationships between what is real and what is ideal.

44. 5. Cognitive-perceptual readiness and internal motivation
These are mandatory conditions for behavioral change. The student who has desire
to learn regarding the subject matter makes comprehension and retention easy,
whereas, students who are not interested to learn make teaching and learning
difficult.
6. The ordering of information
This influence the ease with which learning takes place. Systematic and dynamic
presentation of subject matter consistent with students’ readiness to learn motivate
active and productive learning process.

45. 7. Stimulus-response association and discrimination abilities
These are prerequisite to chained behaviors. However, connection or association cannot
be established by mere repetition of response.
8. Cognitive constructs
The cognitive constructs of perceptual imagery and recognition of features, such as
form, spatial arrangement, texture, and so on are prerequisite to concept formation.

46. 9. Multiple discrimination and generalization responses
These can be done through active sensory, cognitive and emotional participation
and direct involvement in learning.
10. Previous knowledge
Prerequisite to principles of learning and perception are concept acquisition, and
recall of the subject matter previously learned.
Prerequisite to problem-solving behaviors are perception, association,
discrimination, concept formation, generalization, recall, and selection responses.

47. 11. Critical thinking skills
Some cognitive, effective, and psychomotor behaviors can be acquired,
strengthen or weaken by observing and imitating the action of others.
Prerequisite to acquiring critical thinking skills include perceptual awareness,
reception, memory, recall, discrimination, association, generalization, chaining,
and decision making responses.
12. Flexibility and adaptation
Developing general patterns of personal, social, and emotional adjustment
include affecting, receiving, responding, valuing, and organization response.

48. 13. Feedback
Crucial conditions for behavioral change include being assertive, sharing, active,
overt, short periods of practice and periods of rest, positive reinforcement and
corrective feedback.
14. Balanced growth and development patterns
Learning can be enhanced by matching learning activities with the learner’s level of
development, cognition, abilities, styles, strengths, modalities, and preferences.
A combination of all these principles of learning facilitates the student
understanding and internalizing the learning process.

49. Five (5) Processes of Learning (International Commission on
Education for the 21st Century, UNESCO: 1996)
1. Learning is a treasure within
2. Learning to know
3. Learning to do.
4. Learning to live together in peace and harmony
5. Learning to be

50. 1. Learning is a treasure within
It stresses that each individual must be
equipped to seize learning opportunities
throughout life, both to broaden his
knowledge, skills and attitude, and adapt to a
changing complex and interdependent world.

51. 2. Learning to know
This is less concerned with the acquisition of
structured knowledge but more with the
mastery of learning tools. This emphasizes
the integration of broad general knowledge
with in-depth analysis of selected number of
causes or factors.

52. 3. Learning to do.
The acquisition of competence that enables a
student to deal with a variety of situations and
work in teams or groups. This further improves
knowledge, life, skills, personal qualities,
aptitude and attitude.
Learning to do requires a skillful, creative and
discerning application of knowledge. An
individual must learn how to think creatively,
critically, and holistically, and how to deeply
understand the information received.

53. 4. Learning to live together in peace and harmony
Learning is a dynamic, holistic and lifelong
process through which mutual respect,
understanding, caring and sharing,
compassion, social responsibility, solidarity,
acceptance, and tolerance of diversity among
individuals and groups are internalized.

54. 5. Learning to be
The aim of education is the complete
development and fulfillment of man,
complexities of personality, expressions and
commitments as an individual, member of a
family and community, citizen and producer,
inventor of techniques, and creative mentors.

55. Major Types of Learning
There are major types of Learning that students
may manifest during the process.
1. Ideational Learning
2. Skill or psychomotor learning
3. Emotional learning

56. 1. Ideational Learning
Pertaining to the formation of ideas or
thoughts of objects not immediately present
to the senses and it is pursued in the
cognitive domain.
It is the acquiring of new knowledge through
different aspects:

57. a. Cognition
Refers to processes through which an
individual obtains knowledge about
anything by perceiving, remembering,
discriminating, integrating, abstracting,
generalizing, imagining, problem solving,
and creating.

58. b. Perception
Perception is the immediate conscious
reaction of the organism to the stimulation
of a sense organ. Perception is also the
mental process through which various
stimuli are interpreted.
A percept is a mental picture of something
that is immediately present to the senses
and gets stored in the memory, to be
recalled in the future in developing
concepts.

59. c. Concept
A concept is a symbolic representation of
an actual thing
Refers to an idea or a mental image which
makes reflective thinking possible. It is a
building block of theories through which
knowledge is formed.
Concepts can either be:
- Concrete concept
- Abstract concept

60. d. Principle
It is a form of generalization that implies
action. It is a statement that explains a large
number of related phenomena which may
serve as a guide to action.
ex. It’s more important that you learn from
your failure(s) and harness the lesson

61. 2. Skill or psychomotor learning
Skill learning is pursued and developed in the
cognitive and psychomotor domain. It refers
to refined pattern of movement or
performance based on integrated perceived
demands of the situation. It implies a learned
response to a situation.

62. 3. Emotional learning
Refers to a mental state which is
characterized by certain feelings and
emotions.
The end-products of emotional learning
which determine the character of the
student’s motive power are the following
(Feldman: 2004):

63. a. Emotion and will
Emotion and will are the ability to accept and cope with rejection and still
continue performing tasks to achieve a specific goal.
b. Attitudes
Attitude refers to a disposition, readiness, inclination, or tendency to act
toward a specific goal in a particular way.
c. Values in emotional learning
Values are learned through observations, simulations, and significant and
reliable information necessary for adaptation. These are differentiated
from other skills and knowledge since it is concerned about appreciation
of learning that is made to exist in a given situation or in a given
experience.

64. Laws of Learning
By Edward L. Thorndike
Edward L. Thorndike postulated several “laws of “Learning”
applicable to the learning process. However, the laws do provide the
teacher with insights into the learning process that can assist them in
providing rewarding experience to the learners.

65. 1. Law of Readiness
The law of readiness states that in order to
learn, one must be physically and mentally
ready to receive a learning stimuli.

66. 2. Law of Exercise
The law of exercise stresses the idea that
repetition is basic to the development of
adequate responses because things most
often repeated are easiest remembered and
practiced.
Similarly, mastery of a subject matter ca not
be achieved over night. It has to be learned,
repeated, and practiced continuously in bits
and pieces

67. 3. Law of Effect
The law of effect involves the emotional
reaction of the learner which states that:
- Learning is more effective when a feeling pf
satisfaction, pleasantness, or reward
accompanies the result of the learning process
- Learning is strengthened when accompanied
by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and that
weakened when associated with an
unpleasant experience.

68. 4. Law of Primacy
It states that being first often creates a
strong, almost unshakeable impression. The
first lessons learned create a strong impact
on the learners memory and understanding.
An incorrect lesson learned by a learner is
difficult to correct. Therefore, a teacher must
always ensure that lessons taught are precise
and accurate.

69. 5. Law of Intensity
It states that if the stimulus or experience is
real, intense, and vivid, the more likely
learning will occur. A practical and dramatic
or exciting learning experience teaches more
than a routine.

70. 6. Law of Recency
The law of recency states that information or
skills most recently learned are best
remembered, while the things learned some
time ago are less remembered.

71. Learning Theories
It is important for a teacher to familiarize herself with various learning theories.
This way, she may be able to develop teaching style appropriate for her
personality and her students’ learning ability.
These theories will be divided in 3 different categories:
1. Stimulus response theories
2. Cognitive theories
3. Social learning theories

72. Words to remember:
Stimuli: a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or
tissue
a thing that rouses activity or energy in someone or something; a spur or
incentive
an interesting and exciting quality
Response: a reaction to something
Behavior: the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially toward others.
the way in which a natural phenomenon or a machine works or functions
Behaviorism: is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.”

73. 1. Stimulus response theories
Stimulus response theories are equated with
the behavioral modification theory.
These theories use simple external stimuli in
observing the subject’s learning response to
both positive and negative reinforcement, and
how these responses may change over a period
of time depending on the stimulus applied.

74. Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning Theory

75. Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic
type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the
capacity to evoke a response that was originally
evoked by another stimulus.
In the early twentieth century, Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning
work on digestion. While studying the role of
saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled
upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic
reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had
the foresight to see the importance of it.

76. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental
chamber, were presented with meat powder and
they had their saliva collected via a surgically
implanted tube in their saliva glands.
Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin
salivation before the meat powder was even
presented, whether it was by the presence of the
handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by
the device that distributed the meat powder.

78. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat
powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a
bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory
stimulus) were presented together several times,
the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as
predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of
the bell (without the food).
The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell
itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation).
However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that
did produce the salivation response, the bell was
able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation
response.

79. In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral
stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a
conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation
after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

80. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory

81. The learning theory of Thorndike represents the
original S-R framework of behavioral psychology:
Learning is the result of associations forming
between stimuli and responses. Such associations
or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by
the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral
theory) was that learning could be adequately
explained without referring to any unobservable
internal states.

82. Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws:
(1) law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of
affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation,
(2) law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some
goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and
(3) law of exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened
when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that
reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will
decrease in strength.

83. B.F. Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning

84. The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change
in overt behavior.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory.
A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good
grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction.

85. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any
stimulus that results in the increased frequency of
a response when it is withdrawn
(different from adversive stimuli -- punishment --
which result in reduced responses).
A great deal of attention was given to schedules of
reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their
effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.

86. There are four types of Operant Conditioning,
namely:
- Positive reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement
- Punishment
- Extinction

87. John Watson’s Behaviorism Theory

88. He pioneered behaviorism theory
Behaviorism: the theory that human and animal
behavior can be explained in terms of
conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or
feelings, and that psychological disorders are best
treated by altering behavior patterns.

89. Behaviorists believe that psychology should focus
on measureable and observable physical
behaviors and how these behaviors can be
manipulated by changes in the external
environment.
There is no room in behaviorist theory for
thoughts or emotions, a contrast to other theories
of psychology.

90. Concepts of behaviorism
1. Behaviorism is naturalistic
Behaviorism states that the material world is the ultimate reality, and
everything can be explained in terms of natural laws.
Man has no soul and no mind, but only has a brain that responds to external
stimuli
2. Man is nothing more than a machine
States that man responds to conditioning process and responds accordingly
the way the mind perceives the stimulus

91. 3. Men are “biological machines” whose minds do not have any influence on
their actions
According to skinner, the mind and mental processes are “metaphors and
fictions” and that “behavior is simply part of the biology of the organism”
4. Behaviorism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions
since men are mere machines, then anything done by men is inevitable
5. Behaviorism is manipulative
Behaviorism predicts and controls human behavior by controlling rewards
and punishment. One can shape the behavior of another individual

92. Edwin Ray Guthrie’s Contiguity theory

93. Guthrie's contiguity theory specifies that "a combination of stimuli which has
accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement".
According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association between a
particular stimulus and response.
Furthermore, Guthrie argued that stimuli and responses affect specific sensory-
motor patterns; what is learned are movements, not behaviors.

94. In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in learning since
they occur after the association between stimulus and response has been made.
Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than the
passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses. Previous
conditioning can also be changed by being associated with inhibiting responses such
as fear or fatigue.
The role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity which produces
responses that can be conditioned.

95. The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is cats learning to escape from a puzzle
box (Guthrie & Horton, 1946).

96. THANK YOU! 