I developed these slides for my Soil and Water Conservation class in Spring 2013

1. When did people arrive in North America?

2. Estimatesmany people lived in the Americas in records
So how based on archaeological data and written 1492?
from European settlers range from as low as 8 million to
> 100 million "Native Americans“ in 1492
Dozens of distinct language groups

3. Paleoindian period in IL
Anthropologists believe that the first humans to arrive in
North America crossed the Bering Land Bridge at least
14,000 years ago. They call this period of Native American
history Paleoindian, meaning ancient Indian. Paleoindian
people left behind distinctive spear points, and other types
of stone tools at hundreds of campsites in IL.
C-dating of Paleoindian activities in IL has not been
possible because no organic remains have been found at
Paleoindian campsites in IL but spear points similar to
those found in IL have been found in other parts of North
America at sites containing 10-12,000 year old organic
remains.

4. Paleoindian spear points, Fulton County, Illinois.
Notice the notch at the base.
This characteristic of Paleoindian points
distinguishes them from points
made at other times

5. Of the more than 45,000
recorded archaeological sites
in Illinois, less than
400 (0.9%) represent the
Paleoindian culture!
Paleoindian sites are found
throughout the entire state, which
suggests a way of life adaptable
to many landscapes. Based on
the small number of artifacts
found at each site, and the small
size of most Paleoindian sites,
archaeologists believe that small
numbers of Paleoindians lived
together in very temporary
camps.

6. Archaeologists have yet to find a Paleoindian site in Illinois with
any evidence of their specific food choices, but there is strong
evidence that they were nomadic hunter /gatherers and a little
evidence that they hunted megafauna.

7. Archaic period
Anthropologists refer to the period from ~3000 to
~10,000 years ago as the Archaic period of Native
American culture.
Early Archaic people (8-10,000 years ago) continued
the nomadic hunting and gathering lifestyle of the
Paleoindians, but began using many new types of
tools.
Middle Archaic people (5-8000 years ago) were less
nomadic. For at least part of the year, they lived in
villages.
Late Archaic people (3-5000 years ago) still hunted
and gathered, but they also cultivated plants to
supplement their food supply.

8. Archaeologists
have identified over
8300 Archaic sites
in Illinois!
Keep in mind that the
Archaic period lasted
~7,000 years, much
longer than any other
cultural period.

9. Archaic people in North Dogs probably played a
America (and other key role in the
continents) developed an development of the
extraordinary relationship hunting techniques used
with wolves. by Archaic people.
Some of the earliest domesticated dogs in North America were found at
an Early Archaic settlement in Greene County, Illinois.

10. Dog burial, Koster site, Greene County
The remains of at least four domesticated dogs were buried by Early
Archaic people at the Koster site more than 8000 years ago. Each dog was
laid on its side in a shallow grave and then covered with dirt. None of the
graves appear to have been marked. The dogs were buried in an area of
the village where residents also buried the remains of adults and children.

11. Near the end of the Archaic Period, 4000-5000 years ago,
people in Illinois began to cultivate plants. This new way of
life had dramatic effects… changing the types of food
people ate, the tools they used, societal structure, religious
beliefs, and the way they interacted with their neighbors.

12. Wadlow point, Airport site, Sangamon County.
This Late Archaic knife (~ 4000 years old) is typical of those
found in central and southwestern Illinois. It was made from
chert, a silica-rich rock that can be shaped by slowly chipping
away unwanted material. Chert is found in limestone bluffs
along the lower part of the Illinois River valley and other
locations in the state.

13. Woodland Period
1250-3000 years ago
The Woodland period is divided
into Early (3,000 to 2,200 years
ago), Middle (2,200 to 1,800
years ago) and Late (1,800 to
1,250 years ago) sub-periods.
Like the Archaic Period, each
Woodland sub-period represents
a slightly different way of life.

14. Pottery first appears in Illinois during the Early
Woodland period. Before this time, containers
were probably made of wood, plant fiber, or leather.
Long-distance trade and new forms of artistic
expression flourished during the Middle Woodland
period.
The bow and arrow and the cultivation of corn
distinguish the Late Woodland period.
In contrast to the Archaic Period, cultural change
occurred much faster during the Woodland period.

15. Ceramic figurine
Smiling Dan site, Scott County.
This tiny, less than one inch tall, 2,000-year-old clay figurine
is an example of many human figurines made by Native
American artisans in IL during the Middle Woodland
period. Figurines are often the only clues to the appearance
of ancient Native Americans.

16. Ceramic bowl, Elizabeth site, Pike County
Prehistoric pottery was made by mixing together clay, temper (stone,
sand, shell or crushed pottery added to strengthen the pot and
ensure even drying), and water. Just the right amount of water made
the mixture plastic, but strong enough to be shaped into containers.
After shaping and smoothing the container, Native Americans often
decorated the exterior with symbols such as the abstract bird seen
on this two thousand year old bowl. In Illinois, people of the
Woodland period were the first to make extensive use of pottery.

17. Mississippian Period
The Mississipian cultures, most famous for their earthen mounds,
flourished in what is now the Midwestern and Southeastern United States
from approximately 500 AD to 1500 AD

18. Mississippian sites
~ 500 – 1500 AD
18

19. Key characteristics of the Mississippian cultures
• Large earthen mounds - usually square, rectangular, or
occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses,
temples, burial buildings, or other) were usually
constructed on top of the mounds.
• Maize (corn) based agriculture - the development of
Mississippian culture coincided with adoption of
comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture,
which could support larger populations and craft
specialization
• Shell derived tempering agents used in ceramics

20. Additional characteristics of the Mississippian cultures
•Widespread trade networks extending as far west as
the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of
Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.
•Chiefdom or complex chiefdom social organization.
Combined political and religious power in the hands of
one or a few.
•Beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in which one
major center (with mounds) has clear influence or control
over a number of lesser communities, which may or may
not possess a smaller number of mounds.

21. Cahokia
Illinois History 21

23. Historical period
In 1673, the Illinois were a large, powerful group of tribes
that numbered more than 10,000 people and occupied a
large territory. However, in 1832, when they ceded the last of
their Illinois lands to the US government, they had been
reduced to a single village of fewer than 300 people.

24. http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/index.html
If you would like to
learn more about the
history of Native
Americans in IL, the
Illinois State Museum
has a great collection
(both physical and on-
line)

26. So who was Pere Marquette?

27. Route followed by
Louis Joliet and
Pere Marquette

28. Timeline for Louis Joliet and Pere Marquette’s expedition
October 1672: Louis Joliet was commissioned by the French Governor of
Quebec, to join Father Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit priest, on an expedition to
find and explore the Mississippi River
May 1673: A seven man expedition including Father Jacques Marquette and
Louis Joliet set off in birch bark canoes to the north shore of Lake Michigan to
Green Bay, then up the Fox River
June 1673: Joliet and his party reach the Mississippi River. They explored the
Mississippi, meeting many different Indian tribes. They eventually realized
that the Mississippi River did not lead to the Pacific Ocean but flowed into the
Gulf of Mexico. They turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River after
encountering natives carrying European trinkets, fearing an encounter with
colonists from Spain. Father Jacques Marquette drew a map of the land
through which they passed and kept a diary of the voyage of exploration
1674: The expedition followed the Illinois river back to Lake Michigan where
Father Jacques Marquette remained at the mission of Saint Francis Xavier at
the head of Green Bay. Louis Joliet went on to Quebec arriving in August 1674
and reported the expedition’s findings.

29. La Salle’s
expeditions

30. Louisiana Purchase (from France) in 1803
530 million acres for ~ 42 cents per acre (2012 dollars)

31. The journals of early explorers (e.g., Father Jacques
Marquette (aka Pere Marquette) and Louis Joliet)
provide detailed descriptions of the natural
environment in IL.
"There are prairies three, six, ten, and twenty
leagues [a league is ~ 3 miles] in length, and three in
width, surrounded by forests of the same extent;
beyond these, the prairies begin again, so that there
is as much of one sort of land as the other.
Sometimes we saw the grass very short, and, at
other times, five or six feet high”.� �Louis Joliet,
1674

32. "At first, when we were told of these
treeless lands, I imagined that it was a
country ravaged by fire, where the soil
was so poor that it could produce nothing.
But we have certainly observed the
contrary; and no better soil can be found,
either for corn, for vines, or for any fruit
whatever."
Prairie State: Impressions of Illinois, 1673-1967,
by Travelers and Other Observers. (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1968)

33. “We now took up our journey across the plains...
Fields of prairie frequently spread before the eye, like
the boundless expanse of the ocean… Its apparent
boundary is the horizon… So vigorous a growth of
grasses and flowering plants, covers these plains,
that in several places, we found them to overtop our
shoulders, sitting on horseback; a proof, if any proof
were wanting, of the strength and richness of the
soil.“
— Henry Rowe Schoolcraft 1821

34. In the November 17, 1838 issue of the Prairie Beacon newspaper of
Hillsboro, Illinois, was a column called "A Traveler in Illinois." The writer
informed the reader about the prairie and how it was changing as more
people arrive and settle in the state.
"In no section of the Union, perhaps, are the effects of heavy
rain more strikingly visible than in Illinois. The tenacious clay,
which everywhere underlies the soil, prevents that free and
speedy absorption of water which takes place in more sandy or
stony regions. As a consequence, the water accumulates more
rapidly, and causes a sudden rise in the creeks and branches.
Our traveler found some difficulty in fording the streams and in
more than one instance was obliged to swim with his horse. He
observed that the water had a very thick and muddy appearance
and at this he was not in the least surprised, on noticing how
deeply the roads and ravines had been gullied out. When once
the prairie sod has been broken, especially on a declivity, the
process of erosion becomes extremely rapid; and the only
method to prevent the formation of a deep ravine is to supply a
new turf by sowing blue grass."

35. Illinois agriculture expanded very rapidly in
the nineteenth century, growing from only
thousands of acres in 1818 to 12 million
acres by 1850 to a peak of ~ 33 million acres
in 1900. The portion of farmland rated as
“improved” increased from 41.9% in 1850
to 84.5% in 1900.
What is
“improved”
land?
One of the first 3 plows
manufactured by John Deere in
1838

36. Farmland peaked at > 90% of the land surface of
IL over 100 years ago and has gradually declined
to a little less than 75%
So… what happened
to the ~ 15% of IL that
is no longer farmland?
85%
80%
26.8
75% million
2007

38. Western Illinois

39. Central Illinois

40. Northeast Illinois

41. Summer annual crops have become
dominant in the Corn Belt

42. Is this what your county looks like?
• In 2001, 8 counties in IL had more than
80% of their land surface planted to crops.
• 22 counties had 70-79% of their land
surface planted to crops.
• 28 counties had 60-69% of their land
surface planted to crops.
Which IL county has the highest % of cropland?

43. Major causes of accelerated
erosion in Illinois
Moldboard plow
Tractor power
Adoption of soybeans and
decline of forages
Construction and Mining

44. One of the most negative ecological effects of
accelerated soil erosion in IL has been the
sedimentation of streams and lakes. The bottomland
lakes in the IL River basin have lost more than 72% of
their volume, with some of them now completely filled
with sediment.
As the bottomland lakes filled in, waves generated by
wind and river traffic resuspend the bottom sediment.
Contaminants stored in the sediment become more
harmful to aquatic biota when regularly
resuspended.
http://iahs.info/redbooks/a236/iahs_236_0483.pdf

45. Sedimentation has dramatically changed the
geomorphology of the Illinois River. Because of
navigation requirements, a minimum water depth
of 9’ is maintained along a 300’ navigation channel
by a system of locks and dams and by regular
dredging.
Outside the navigation channel, the water depth
rapidly decreases due to continued sediment
accumulation. The Illinois River is therefore
gradually transforming itself into a narrow river
channel in the middle of a wide flood plain without
the diversity of small side channels and
bottomland lakes.

46. Illinois River cross section in 1903 vs. 1985

47. The bottomland lakes along the Illinois River
valley were significantly altered when the
Chicago River was reversed in 1900 causing all of
Chicago’s sewage and some water from Lake
Michigan to flow into the Illinois River. The
increased flow raised the water level in the
Lower Illinois River valley resulting in an increase
in size of the bottomland lakes. Sloughs,
wetlands, and small lakes were flooded by the
higher water creating bigger lakes but negatively
effecting the ecology.

48. The completion of the 9-foot navigation waterway
with a system of locks and dams along the Illinois
River in the 1930s raised the water level even
higher flooding some bottomland ecosystems but
large areas formerly occupied by bottomland lakes
and wetlands were cut off by levees and drained
for agricultural purposes.

49. Hydric soils – Legacy of glaciation in
the Upper Mississippi River Basin

50. Presettlement IL
contained ~ 8 million
acres of wetlands.
>90% have been
drained.
IL currently has over
400,000 acres of
wetlands but only
~ 6000 acres of high
quality largely
undisturbed wetlands
remain today.

51. History of Drainage
In 1849, Congress passed the
1849
first of the Swamp Land Acts,
which granted all swampland in
Louisiana to the State for
reclamation. In 1850, the Act was
made applicable to 12 other
states including IL, and in 1860, it
was extended to include MN and 1850
OR.
Although most states did not
begin immediate large-scale
reclamation projects, this
legislation clearly set the tone
that the US federal government
1860
supported wetland “reclamation”
for settlement and development.
~ 65 million acres in 15 states

52. States with major loss of wetlands between 1860 and 1900
http://water.usgs.gov/nwsum/WSP2425/images/fig10.gif

53. Improvements in drainage technology
greatly accelerated drainage of wetlands
after the civil war.
As the use of steam power expanded, replacing hand
labor for digging ditches and manufacturing drainage
tiles, the production and installation of drainage tiles
increased rapidly.
By 1880, 1,140 factories in the US located mainly in
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio manufactured terra cotta
drainage tiles.

54. During the 1930's, the USDA provided free engineering
services to farmers interested in installing artificial drainage.
Assistance with drainage projects switched over to cost share
in the 1940s. Organized drainage districts throughout the
country coordinated efforts to drain wetlands.
States with major loss of wetlands between 1900 and 1950
?

55. During the 1950s – 1970s, the Federal Government continued to
directly subsidize or facilitate drainage of wetlands through a wide
variety of public-works projects, technical practices, and cost-shared
drainage programs administered by the USDA.
Tile and open-ditch drainage were considered conservation practices
under the USDA’s Agriculture Conservation Program (ACP).
States with major wetland loss 1950-1990

56. Many of the endangered species in IL
are associated with wetlands
•Approximately 60 of the 98 vertebrate species listed as threatened or
endangered in Illinois use wetlands at least some time during their life.
•Eight of the nine mammal species listed as threatened or endangered
in Illinois use wetlands as habitat.
•Four of the five amphibian species listed as threatened or endangered
in Illinois use wetlands as habitat.
•11 of the 30 fish species listed as threatened or endangered in Illinois
either live or breed in wetlands.
•29 of the 41 bird species listed as threatened or endangered in Illinois
are strongly associated with wetlands.
•Approximately 18 percent of Illinois' native wetland plant species are
listed as threatened or endangered.

57. In 1820, old growth forests occupied ~ 14 million
acres (~ 40%) of IL. Within a century only slightly
more than 8% of the original forest remained, and
today only 11,600 acres, or 0.9%, is left. Rarer
forest types, such as sand forests, have virtually
vanished from Illinois. The removal of Illinois’
forests during the 19th century rivaled the pace of
the cutting of tropical rainforests today.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

58. Transformation of Illinois’s forests
13.8 million acres 4.2 million acres

59. Only 4 tracts of old growth forest > 10 acres remain in IL
Shawnee National Forest 2,800 acres
Cache River State Natural Area 1,600 acres
Cypress Creek National Wildlife
500 acres
Refuge
Beall Woods State Park 329 acres
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old_growth_forests

60. Hundreds of thousands of acres of pastures and forage
cropland were converted to row crops or abandoned
beginning in the 1940s as Illinois farmers switched from
animal husbandry to row-crop production. Woody plants
quickly re-established themselves on abandoned pastures.
The shift of land back into forest has been uneven, with
forest acres growing in northern IL, while forest acres
continue to dwindle in the south. Overall, forested land has
increased 41% (1.24 million acres) compared to 1926.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

61. 17 counties in south
central IL each lost
more than 5,000
acres of forest land
between 1962 and
1985.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

62. Wooded parcels in Illinois tend to be small.
Only 11% of the 214 "Grade A" and "Grade B" forest
sites cataloged by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory
are greater than 100 acres in size. Each of the more
than 169,000 private forest owners is estimated to own
only 21.5 acres on average.
An analysis of 13 counties in south central Illinois
found that the vast majority of "forests" in this region
were smaller than one acre in size, the equivalent of
backyards with trees.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

63. A total of 508 species of woody plants
(284 of them shrubs) are found in Illinois
forests. Nearly half (49%) of the plant
species rare to Illinois are found in its
woodland ecosystems. Twelve Illinois
native forest plant species are thought to
have been extirpated.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

64. Forests make up ~75% of Illinois
wildlife habitat today.
80% of the mammals and amphibians
and 60% of the birds in IL need
forested land for at least part of their
lifecycles; in all, the woods are home to
more than 420 vertebrate species.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

65. White tailed deer, IL‘s largest and most coveted game animal
today, was so victimized by habitat change and hunting that
by 1901 it had been virtually eliminated from the state..
Today IL is home
to more deer than
were present in
1818 and in many
parts of the state,
deer are a road
hazard and garden
pest.
The reversion of farm fields to woods, and the recovery of understory in
woods where it had been suppressed by grazing livestock, provided deer
with a perfect habitat. The change in habitat plus the lack of predators has
led to a population explosion

66. Invasion by Aliens
Defoliation (a common disease symptom) increases the amount of
sunlight that falls on the forest floor; this benefits sun-loving species
(many of which, unfortunately, are aggressive exotics) and thus
changes the species composition of that level of the system.
Most of these plants, such as the amur honeysuckle and the autumn
olive, were introduced to Illinois as ornamentals or wildlife habitat.
Unfortunately, they thrive in environments lacking the pressures from
predators and competitors that keep their spread under control in their
own native habitats. Common buckthorn is a pest in northern Illinois
woods while multiflora rose is a problem everywhere in Illinois; garlic
mustard now is recorded in 41 counties, and probably is present in
many more.
There are even weed trees--the amur maple, white mulberry, golden
rain tree, and tree of heaven. In areas where these aliens thrive, the
natural succession of forest plants may be altered and the structure of
the forests themselves thus drastically changed.
http://dnr.state.il.us/orep/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htm

68. Strip mining of coal in IL began around 1910 with the introduction of the
steam shovel for removing the overburden. By the 1960's more than half of
the coal mined in IL was by stripping. From a record level of 1,350 mines in
1935, the number of active coal mines has declined less than 15 today.
During the years of rapid technological advancement, little attention was
given to the serious adverse effects of coal mining. By the late 1970's, over
200,000 acres of land had been disturbed by surface and deep mining of
coal. Of this disturbed acreage, over 22,000 acres contained exposed
refuse materials (gob and slurry), tipple sites and toxic or sparsely
vegetated spoilbanks.

69. > 200,000 acres in IL and > 1 million acres in the Midwest
http://www.idaillinois.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/ccpl&CISOPTR=35&CISOBOX=1&REC=5

70. Chicago in 1900
82,000 horses produced
600,000 tons of manure
+
Sewage from 1.7 million people
Where did it all go ?
http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/images/american-cities-101.jpg

74. There is more to eat
in Lake Michigan!!
I am an Asian
carp!