1. What Is Leadership?
management
Use of authority inherent in
designated formal rank to
obtain compliance from
organizational members

2. I. Trait Theories
Leadership Traits:
• Ambition and energy
• The desire to lead
• Honesty and
integrity
• Self-confidence
• Intelligence
• Job-relevant
knowledge

3. Trait Theories
Limitations:
• No universal traits that predict leadership
in all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak”
than “strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect
of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of
leadership than distinguishing effective
and ineffective leaders.

4. II. Behavioral Theories
• Trait theory:
Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.

5. 1. Ohio State Studies

6. 2. University of Michigan Studies

7. 3. The Managerial Grid
(Blake and Mouton)
1,9 pattern 9,9 pattern
“Country club” Team management-
environment the ideal style
(high)
9
Concern for People
8
7
6 5,5 pattern
Middle-of-the-road
5 management
4
3
2
9,1 pattern
1,1 pattern 1 Task management
impoverished
management (low) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(high)
Concern for Production

8. The Leadership Grid
High 1,9 9,9
Country Club Management Team Management
8 Thoughtful attention to the needs Work accomplishment is from
of the people for satisfying committed people;
7 relationships leads to a interdependence through a
comfortable, friendly organization “common stake” in organization
Concern for People
6 atmosphere and work tempo purpose leads to relationships of
trust and respect
Middle-of-the-road Management
5 5,5
Adequate organization performance is possible through
4 balancing the necessity to get work out while
maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
3 Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required Efficiency in operations results from arranging
2 work done is appropriate to sustain conditions of work in such a way that human
organization membership. elements interfere to a minimum degree
1 1,1 9,1
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low Concern for Results High

9. 4. Scandinavian Studies

10. III. Contingency Theories of Leadership
• Contingency theory of leadership assumes
that there is no one best way to lead.
Effective leadership depends on the leader’s
and follower’s characteristics as well as
other factors in the leadership situation.

11. CONTINGENCY THEORIES
• All Consider the Situation
– Fiedler’s Contingency Model
– Cognitive Resource Theory
– Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
– Path Goal Theory
Assumptions underlying the different models:
Fiedler: Leader’s style is fixed
Other’s: Leader’s style can and should be changed

12. Central Features of the Contingency Theory
of Leadership
 Best way: there is no one best way to lead.
 Leadership style: Different leadership styles are
appropriate for different situations.
 Middle ground: The contingency theory stresses
the views that (a) there is some middle ground
between the existence of universal principles of
leadership that fit all situations and (b) each
situation is unique and therefore must be studied
and treated as unique.

13. Central Features of the Contingency Theory
of Leadership (Cont.)
 Focus: The contingency theories of leadership we
study focus on three variables: (a) leader’s style;
(b) follower’s motivation and skill; and (c) the
nature of the task.
 Adaptability of leadership style: For an individual
leader, this theory assumes that leadership is
changeable and should be variable for different
situations.

14. 1. Fiedler Model
• Leader: Style is Fixed (Task oriented vs.
Relationship oriented)
• Considers Situational Favorableness for Leader
– Leader-member relations
– Task structure
– Position power
 Key Assumption
– Leader must fit situation; options to accomplish
this:
– Select leader to fit situation
– Change situation to fit leader

16. Fiedler’s Model: The Leader
Assumption: Leader’s Style is Fixed & Can
be Measured by the Least Preferred Co-
Worker (LPC) Questionnaire
Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)
Questionnaire
The way in which a leader will
evaluate a co-worker that is not
liked will indicate whether the
leader is task- or relationship-
oriented.

17. Fiedler’s Model: Defining the
Situation
Leader-Member Relations
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect
subordinates have in their leader.
Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are
procedurized.
Position Power
Influence derived from one’s formal structural
position in the organization; includes power to hire,
fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

18. Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Model
Task-oriented style Relationships-oriented Task-oriented style
considerate style
Favorable leadership Situation intermediate Unfavorable leadership
situation situation

19. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of
Leadership
Figure 13.2

20. Findings from
Fiedler Model

21. 2. Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory
s
n es
ng
w illi
d
y an
ilit
: ab
ess
d in
r ea
w er
llo
Fo
Leader: decreasing need for support and supervision

22. Situational Leadership Theory - the most effective leadership style depends
on the extent to which followers require guidance, direction, and
emotional support (i.e., the readiness of the followers to do the job)
- four leadership styles
- e.g., telling the most appropriate style when followers lack
readiness (have little job knowledge or willingness to
work without taking direction)
(amount of support required) High
Participating Selling
Relationship behavior
Delegating Telling
Telling
Low
Low High
Task behaviors
(direct behavior)

23. 3. Leader–Member Exchange Theory

24. Leader-Member Exchange
Theory

25. 4. The Path-Goal Theory (Robert
House)

26. Path-Goal Theory - subordinates are motivated by a leader only to the extent
they perceive this individual as helping them to attain valued goals
- effective leadership determined by complex interaction of leader
behaviors, subordinate characteristics, and aspects of the
work environment
Characteristics
of subordinates
• Ability
• Personality
Leader’s behavior
• Instrumental
Progress • High performance
• Supportive toward • High satisfaction
• Participative goal
• Achievement oriented
Aspects of the
work environment
• Task structure
• formal authority

27. House’s Path-Goal Theory
• A contingency model of leadership proposing the
effective leaders can motivate subordinates by:
1. Clearly identifying the outcomes workers are trying to
obtain from their jobs.
2. Rewarding workers for high-performance and goal
attainment with the outcomes they desire
3. Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals,
remove obstacles to performance, and express
confidence in worker’s ability.

28. Motivating with Path-Goal
• Path-Goal identifies four leadership behaviors:
– Directive behaviors: set goals, assign tasks, show how to
do things.
– Supportive behavior: look out for the worker’s best
interest.
– Participative behavior: give subordinates a say in matters
that affect them.
– Achievement-oriented behavior: Setting very challenging
goals, believing in worker’s abilities.
• Which behavior to be used depends on the nature
of the subordinates and the tasks.

29. Cognitive Resource Theory
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals
perform better in leadership
roles under high stress than
do more intelligent
individuals.
• Less experienced people
perform better in leadership
roles under low stress than
do more experienced
people.

30. Types of Leadership Style
• Autocratic:
– Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone
else
– High degree of dependency on the leader
– Can create de-motivation and alienation of staff
– May be valuable in some types of business where
decisions need to be made quickly and decisively

31. Types of Leadership Style
• Democratic:
Encourages decision making
from different perspectives – leadership may be
emphasised throughout the organisation
– Consultative: process of consultation before decisions
are taken
– Persuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to persuade
others that the decision is correct

32. Types of Leadership Style
• Democratic:
– May help motivation and involvement
– Workers feel ownership of the firm and its
ideas
– Improves the sharing of ideas
and experiences within the business
– Can delay decision making

33. Types of Leadership Style
• Laissez-Faire:
– ‘Let it be’ – the leadership responsibilities
are shared by all
– Can be very useful in businesses
where creative ideas are important
– Can be highly motivational,
as people have control over their working life
– Can make coordination and decision making
time-consuming and lacking in overall direction
– Relies on good team work
– Relies on good interpersonal relations

34. Types of Leadership Style
• Paternalistic:
Leader acts as a ‘father figure’
Paternalistic leader makes decision but may
consult
Believes in the need to support staff

35. Role and activities of leadership
• Interpersonal role
• Informational role
• Communication
• Traditional management
• Human resource management
• Networking