The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses.for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
social pharmacy d-pharm 1st year by Pragati K. Mahajan
Development of Occlusion /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy
1. Development of Occlusion
INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY
Leader in continuing dental education
www.indiandentalacademy.com
www.indiandentalacademy.com
1
2. Contents
Introduction
Development of concepts of occlusion
Evolutionary changes
Stages of Occlusion Development
Prenatal Dental development
Mouth of Neonate
Dev of Dentition from birth to Complete deciduous Dentition
Complete deciduous dentition
The first Transitional Period
The intertransitional period
The 2nd Transitional period
Permanent Dentition
2
www.indiandentalacademy.com
3.
Disorders of development of Dentition
Development of Class II/1
Development of Class II div/2
Development of class III
Development of Open bite
Development of cross bite
www.indiandentalacademy.com
3
4. Introduction to Occlusion
Oc = up Clusion = closing ; closing up
Occlusion - Relationship of dental arches
when tooth contacts are made.
Ideal occlusion in broad functional term is –
Teeth alignment is such that masticatory loads are
within physiological range and act through long axis
of as many teeth in arch as possible.
Lateral jaw movement without mechanical
interference.
When in rest position – freeway space is present
Tooth alignment is aesthetically pleasing.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
4
5. The Anatomical alignment of teeth
The Dental Arches –
Size and shape vary
follow Catenary curve
The Neutral Zone
www.indiandentalacademy.com
5
6. The curvatures of teeth and arches
Curve of Spee.
Curve of Wilson
Curve of Monson
www.indiandentalacademy.com
6
7. The anatomical occlusion of teeth
Centric occlusion
Arrangement of teeth in centric occ
relation b/w teeth of both jaws
B-L relation
Centric contacts
www.indiandentalacademy.com
7
11. Development of Concepts of
occlusion
It can be divided into
Fictional Period (prior to 1900)
Hypothetical Period (1900 to 1930)
Factual Period (1930 to present)
www.indiandentalacademy.com
11
12. Fictional Period
Fuller Clark & Imrie talked of ‘antagonism’,
‘meeting’ or ‘gliding’ of teeth.
Talbot said it’s a historical event long since passed
in the decline of species, and possible only with an
atavism ‘throwback’ to our primitive ancestors.
The creation of a normal standard of occlusion , a
basis on which to compare departure from normal
was lacking.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
12
14. Edward .H. Angle
In 1907 Angle put a hypothesis that:
“Occlusion is the basis of the science of orthodontia. The shapes of
the cusps, crowns and roots , and even the very structural material of the
teeth and attachments are all designed for the purpose of making occlusion
the one grand object…. we shall define occlusion as being normal relations
of the occlusal inclined planes of the teeth when the jaws are closed.”
He described the illustration “Old glory”…. which
according to him was ideal occlusion.
Angle stated Apollo Belverdo’s straight profile as ideal
The best eg. of his hypothesis was ‘key of Occlusion’
His hypothesis was suggestive of static occlusion
www.indiandentalacademy.com
14
16. Mathew Cryer and Calvin case
He opposed Angle
How could one mix prognathic denture and orthognathic
profile?
How bimaxillary protrusion considered normal and
individual variation was not considered?
Then they were proved right by Turner’s illustrations
Normal occlusion
( it suits Apollo’s face better)
Case’s concept of www.indiandentalacademy.com
occlusion was static
16
18. Lischer And Paul Simon
They tried to relate concept of occlusion by
relating teeth with rest of the face and cranium.
Lischer introduced mastication as requisite of
occlusion
Simon outlined the anthropometric approach
Milo Hellman
He showed racial variation in normal occlusion
His study was also confined to static occlusion
www.indiandentalacademy.com
18
19. Factual Period
Dividing line b/w static and dynamic occlusion.
1931 Broadbent introduced Cephalometry.
With this advanced study tech the factual period
become functional period.
By now 3 components of occlusion are set up
1. Interdigitation of teeth
2. Status of controlling musculature
3. TMJ integrity
www.indiandentalacademy.com
19
21. Evolution of Dentition
The mammalian dentition is 100, 000 million yrs old
The theories behind mammalian dentition are
Theory of Concrescence – derived by fusion of 2 or more
primitive conical teeth.
Theory of trituberculy – each tooth derived from single
reptilian tooth by secondary differentiation of tubercule
and root.
Theory of multituberculy – derived from reduction and
condensation of primitive multituberculate teeth.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
21
22. Evolution of Dentition
Non mammalian vertebrates – Polyphyodonty
(many dentitions)
In mammals –Diphyodonty (2 dentitions )
During growth of the animal – increase in the jaw
size is associated with tooth size
www.indiandentalacademy.com
22
23. Dentition of fishes ( Agnatha)
Eg - Sea lamprey & hag fishes
No true calcified teeth
Arranged circumferentially
Horny teeth are also seen on the tongue
www.indiandentalacademy.com
23
27. Reptiles
Homodont & polyphyodont
Tend to be tricuspid or cone shaped
Egg teeth – in embryos of lizards & snakes
- used to break the shell
www.indiandentalacademy.com
27
28. Dentition of mammals
Heterodont ( 4 types )
Restricted to 2 rows
Ability to masticate – improves digestive
efficiency for high rate of metabolism
www.indiandentalacademy.com
28
30. Dentition of protheria
Spiny ant eater – edentulous
Duck billed platypus – 3 functional
posterior teeth in each jaw quadrant
No. of additional teeth develop but do not
erupt but rapidly resorb
www.indiandentalacademy.com
30
31. Metatheria
(Marsupials)
Eg. Red Kangroo
Dental formula – 3/1, 0/0, 1/1, 4/4 .
Feed on various plant.
Anterior teeth allow the food to be firmly
grasped.
Marsupials have no. of dental features
which distinguish them from placental
animals.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
31
32. Eutheria
Eg - hedge hog
Insectivoral
Incisors form a forcep like mechanism to pick
preys.
Molars – primitive tritubercular with sharp cusps
Suitable for crushing the shells of insects
www.indiandentalacademy.com
32
33. Rodentia
Eg - rat
Heterogenous , Monophyodont
Continuously growing incisors
DF 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3
Rat & mice are widely used as experimental
animals in Dental sciences
www.indiandentalacademy.com
33
34. Carnivora
Incisors are small and arranged in line.
Enlarged canines – offensive weapons
Incisors and canine – tearing flesh
www.indiandentalacademy.com
34
35. Primates
Classified in to –
Prosimii or Lemur type
Anthropoidea
Mainly herbivorous sometimes
insectivorous
www.indiandentalacademy.com
35
36. Prosimii or Lemur type
DF – 2/2, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3
incisors & canines are procumbent and
form dental comb.
mid line diastema .
Upper canine is blade like
Upper molar tritubercular
www.indiandentalacademy.com
36
37. Anthropoidea
(monkey, apes & Man)
Eg -Macaca monkey
DF – 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3
Canines are long & prominent ( esp. in male )
Lateral diastema
www.indiandentalacademy.com
37
41. Stages of occlusal development
from clinical view ( Barnett)
www.indiandentalacademy.com
41
42. According to Vander Linden
Dev of Dentition from birth to Complete
deciduous Dentition
Complete deciduous dentition
The 1st Transitional Period
The intertransitional period Mixed Dentition
The 2nd Transitional period
Permanent Dentition
www.indiandentalacademy.com
42
44. Prenatal Dental development
Prenatal beginning of the dentition
Initiation of odontogenesis
bud stage
cap stage
bell stage
Spatial patterns
Arch shape
Spacing
www.indiandentalacademy.com
44
45. Initiation of odontogenesis
3rd week of IUL - first sign of tooth dev.
Epithelial thickening seen
IL border of maxilla
SL border of mandible
6 wk IUL Dental lamina is formed.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
45
47.
Morphologic changes - 6wks IUL till 4-5 yrs.
Occurs in 3 main phases
Initiation of entire deciduous dentition at 2nd
month IUL
Initiation of permanent teeth in successional
lamina from 5th month IUL
The dental lamina elongates distal to 2nd decid.
Molar and give rise to permanent molar tooth
germs
www.indiandentalacademy.com
47
48. Bud Stage
Seen at 7th wk IUL
Increased mitotic activity at specific sites in DL
produces 10 knob like tooth buds
Stage of proliferation with no
morphodifferentiation of cells
www.indiandentalacademy.com
48
49. Bud Stage
Early bud stage
Dental lamina
Enamel organ
Mesenchymal condensation
Late bud stage
www.indiandentalacademy.com
49
50. Cap Stage
At end of 8th wk concavity appears on deep surface of
bud – cap shape
Epithelium enlarges and proliferates in to
deeper ectomesenchyme
Its stage of morphodifferentiation
www.indiandentalacademy.com
50
51. Cap Stage
Early cap stage
External dental epith.
Dental follicle
Inner enamel epith.
Dental papilla
Late cap stage
Enamel cord
Enamel knot
Dental
papilla
www.indiandentalacademy.com
51
52. Bell stage
Enlargement of tooth germ and deepening of its undersurface
Germ looses connection with oral epith.
Stage of Histodifferentiation
Determine crown shape initate dentin
and enamel formation
www.indiandentalacademy.com
52
53. Bell stage
Bell stage
outer enamel epith.
Stellate reticulum
Dental follicle
Stratum intermedium
Inner enamel epithelium
Dental papilla
Advanced Bell stage
Ameloblasts
Enamel matrix
Dentin
Predentin
Odontoblasts
www.indiandentalacademy.com
53
54. Advanced Bell stage
Inner dental epithelium – Ameloblasts – Enamel
Outer dental epith. – dental cuticle
Transition zone b/w IDE & ODE – cervical loop
Neighboring cells of IDE in dental papilla –
Dentinoblasts/odontoblasts – Dentin
.
Hertwig’s rootsheath proliferate from CL which
initiates radicular odontoblasts.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
54
55. Arch Shape
At 6 to 8 weeks it’s A-P flattened.
By bell stage or 4mth IUL – Catenary pattern.
Cleft lip and palate arrest this development.
Lateral shift of deciduous lat. incisor is seen.
4 diff arrangements of deciduous teeth in both jaws before
birth
www.indiandentalacademy.com
55
57. Frontal sec through face of 24 wk fetus showing linear
distance from midline to points on tooth germs
www.indiandentalacademy.com
57
58. Spacing
Decid. anterior teeth appear crowded.
Lateral incisor is seen out of alignment
before birth but usually erupt in good
alignment.
Summed crown size increases eight
fold but summed interdental spacing
shows little correlatin with it.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
58
59. The mouth of the Neonate
www.indiandentalacademy.com
59
60. The mouth of the Neonate
The gum pads
Neonatal jaw relationship
Status of dentition
www.indiandentalacademy.com
60
61. Gum Pads
At birth alveolar processes are covered by firm and pink
gum pads
Divided in to 10 segments by transverse
grooves.
Groove b/w canine and dm1 crypt –
lateral sulcus – assessing relation of jaws.
Maxillary arch is horse shoe shape and
extend buccally and labially
Mandibular arch is posterior to max. arch
www.indiandentalacademy.com
61
62. Neonatal jaw relationship
Anterior openbite is seen.
Contact mainly occur at dm1 region.
Infantile open bite is normal as it helps in
suckling.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
62
63. The status of dentition
Neonates are without teeth for 6mths.
Occasionally teeth seen in this period –
Natal
Neonatal
Pre-erupted
These teeth are always mandibular incisors.
Familial tendencies.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
63
64. Tooth Eruption
Two types Preemergent eruption
Eruption before emergence of tooth in oral cavity.
Two processes involved –
Resorption of the overlying bone (and primary tooth root).
Eruption mechanism itself then move the tooth in cleared
path.
Failure of tooth eruption –
Failure of bone resorption (Cleidocranial dysplasia)
Primary failure of eruption.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
64
65.
Postemergent eruption
Eruption after emergence of tooth in oral cavity.
Postemergent spurt
Rapid eruption from a time tooth penetrates the
gingiva till tooth reaches occlusal level.
Eruption - During critical period b/w 8 PM to 1 AM.
After it attain occlusal contact ,occlusal forces
opposes further eruption
www.indiandentalacademy.com
65
66.
Juvenile Occlusal equilibrium
Slow phase
Teeth erupt to fill the space created by vertical
growth of mandibular ramus.
Adult occlusal equilibrium
Compensate for occlusal and proximal wear
www.indiandentalacademy.com
66
67. Mechanism of tooth movement
Bone remodelling of crypt wall
Root formation
Vascular pressure
Periodontal ligament traction
www.indiandentalacademy.com
67
68. Development of the Dentition from
Birth to complete Deciduous
dentition
www.indiandentalacademy.com
68
69. Development of the Dentition from
Birth to complete Deciduous dentition
After birth jaws grow considerably for 6-8 mths.
Lower jaw more dorsally placed irt upper.
Ventral dev takes place during 1st yr – A-P relation
Transverse dev –
median suture in maxilla
Synchondrosis in mandible (till 6 mths.)
Eruption sequence is A B D C E
www.indiandentalacademy.com
69
70. Dev of dental arches and dev of deciduous teeth
A.
At birth
B.
Mand. Central
incisor- 6 to 8 mths
C.
Max. central incisor
7-9 months
D.
U & L lateral
incisors – 1 yr.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
70
74. The Complete Deciduous Dentition
Competed at 2.5 yrs of age after dm2 erupts and
lasts till 5 yr of age
Physiological spaces in primary
dentition
Primate spaces
Developmental spaces
www.indiandentalacademy.com
74
75. Spacing in Deciduous dentition
Gap toothed smile - normal
Hollywood smile with teeth in contact - not normal
www.indiandentalacademy.com
75
76. Occlusal relationship of U & L Dm2
3 types of terminal planes –
Flush terminal plane
Mesial step
distal step
www.indiandentalacademy.com
76
77. Normal situation of the Deciduous dentition
in occlusal, anterior and lateral view
www.indiandentalacademy.com
77
79. The First transition period
The emergence of 1st permanent
molar A B C D E 6
ABCDE6
Transition of the incisors
www.indiandentalacademy.com
79
80. The emergence of 1st permanent molar
1st teeth to emerge in permanent dentition.
In mand. 6 –7 yr In maxillary arch 7- 8 yr
The A-P relation b/w two opposing permanent
molars depend upon –
Their previous position within the jaw
Sagittal relation b/w maxilla and mandible
Terminal planes of 2nd decid molars.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
80
81. Influence of terminal plane on the
position of 1st permanent molar
www.indiandentalacademy.com
81
82. Exchange of Incisors
After eruption of Pm1 , primary incisors exchange
with permanent incisors.
Incisal Liability
7 mm in maxilla
5 mm in mandible
The factors controlling the arrangement of
permanent incisors are -
www.indiandentalacademy.com
82
83.
Interdental spaces in deciduous dentition
Increase of inter-canine width
physiological & primate spaces are utilized
If closed space – crowding occur
Increases 3 mm in both jaws at time of eruption
Increases1.5 mm when canine erupts
So the clasps on canine attached as space maintainer
should be cut off at this time
Increase of anterior length
Increase in length of arch in A-P dimension
www.indiandentalacademy.com
83
84.
Change of tooth axis of incisor
Permanent incisor erupt labially by 2 – 3 mm, attain
overjet and over bite
Pressure by tongue , lip and perioral musculature
Interincisal angle 150 degree in decid. Incisors.
123 degree in perm. Incisor
It increases arch circumference
www.indiandentalacademy.com
84
85.
Ugly duckling stage
Child look unusual due to
Too large permanent incisor compared to primary.
Flared incisors with midline diastema.
Transitional malocclusion – called ugly duckling
stage - broadbent
www.indiandentalacademy.com
85
86. Sequence of normal transition of incisors
At 5 yr.
At 6 –7 yr.
At 7 –8 yr.
At 8 – 9 yr
www.indiandentalacademy.com
86
87. Transition of incisors
Loss of decid. tooth is caused by Resorption of its root
By reduction of bone cervically
Several week passes b/w shedding of decid and eruption
of successor.
In the interval reconstruction of alveolar process and
healing of gingival defect occur
A perm. teeth starts eruption after ¼ of its root formed
Perm .teeth emerge in oral cavity when ¾ root is formed.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
87
89. The inter transitional period
Consist of both decid. & perm. teeth
Teeth present are 1 2 C D E 6
12CDE6
Ugly duckling stage persists in upper incisors.
Under influence of tongue mand incisor attain
proper sites from their lingual position.
The decid teeth present are worn out at this stage.
It is a stable phase with little changes in dentition.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
89
92. The Second transitional period
Transition of Lateral teeth
Eruption of Second permanent molar
www.indiandentalacademy.com
92
93. Transition of lateral teeth
Transition of C D E with 3 4 5 .
For smooth exchange following are
conditions–
Leeway space of Nance
Sum M-D width of 3, 4 & 5 < C D & E
Space available is
22.3 – 21.5 = 0.8 (U)
23.5 – 21.1 = 2.4 (L)
www.indiandentalacademy.com
93
94.
Order of exchange of lateral teeth
It takes 1 ½ yrs. to complete exchange of
lateral teeth.
Sequence of eruption is –
4 5 3 in maxillary and 3 4 5 in mand.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
94
95. Eruption of second Permanent teeth
After exchange of lateral teeth 2nd permanent
molar erupts. i.e after loss of all deciduous teeth.
Sometimes it erupts before E sheds – leads to
crowding
www.indiandentalacademy.com
95
96. Transition of lateral teeth and
eruption of 2nd perm molar
At 9- 10 yrs
At 10 – 11 yrs.
At 10 – 12 yrs.
At 11 – 12 yrs
At 12 – 13 yrs.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
96
98. The Permanent Dentition
At around 13 yr of age all permanent teeth
(except 3rd molar) are erupted.
Situation
in normal
permanent dentition
www.indiandentalacademy.com
98
101. Disorders in development of
Dentition
At time of eruption of Deciduous dentition –
Anomolies
Teething disorder - most of infants exhibit fever,
diarrohea, vomiting , irritability etc before tooth
eruption.
Its rare for primary teeth to be congenitally missing.
Primary tooth resorption
Hastened by inflammation and occlusal trauma
Delayed by splinting and absence of successor
www.indiandentalacademy.com
101
102.
Ankylosis of primary teeth
In Primary molars, esp during physiologic
resorption
Disorders of primary Occlusion –
Its less compared to permanent occlusion.
Thumb sucking and other oral habits
Posterior crossbite
Open bites
Class II malocclusion
Excessive overjet
Bruxism – functional malocclusion
www.indiandentalacademy.com
102
103.
Factors affecting transition of teeth
Dental caries in primary teeth
Disturbance in root resorption due to pulpal or
periodontal disturbances
A periapical lesion
Premature loss of primary molar
www.indiandentalacademy.com
103
104.
Anomolies in Permanent dentition
Microdontia, macrodontia
Gemination ,Fusion, Dilaceration, Talon
cusp, Dens evaginatus
Supernumerary roots
Dentinogenesis & Amelogenesis imperfecta
Enamel Hypoplasia
www.indiandentalacademy.com
104
105. Abnormalities in dental arch
1.
2.
Arch Length Discrepancy
1. Crowding
2.
Spacing
Deviation in no. of teeth1. Absence of teeth ( Agenesis)
2. Supernumerary teeth
www.indiandentalacademy.com
105
106. Absence of teeth ( Agenesis)
Sequece of agenesis is –
3rd molar > Mand. 2nd premolars > Max
Lateral Incisors > Max. 2nd Premolar
www.indiandentalacademy.com
106
109. Deviation in tooth size
Its relative in nature
All teeth combined > or < relative to size of
jaws or head.
Crowding
Spacing
Deviation in size of individual teeth
Tooth size Discrepancy
www.indiandentalacademy.com
109
112. Ankylosis
Frequent in mand deciduous molars.
In permanent 2 types
Due to abnormal position within jaw
Max perm. Canine
Due to lack of space
Mand 3rd molar
www.indiandentalacademy.com
112
113. Angle’s classification of Malocclusion
Class I
ClassII
Class II div 1
Class II div 2
Class II div 1 subdivison
Class II div 2 subdivison
Class III
www.indiandentalacademy.com
113
114. The Development of Occlusion in
Class II/ 1 malocclusion
www.indiandentalacademy.com
114
115. In Deciduous dentition
Limited increase in
overbite
Mand dental arch
dorsally placed irt
maxillary
Distal step
www.indiandentalacademy.com
115
116. In Intertransitional period
Increased overbite
Mand dental arch dorsally
placed, large overjet
Mand 1st perm molar
occludes dorsally to max
www.indiandentalacademy.com
116
117. In Permanent Dentition
Increased overbite
Mand dental arch dorsally
placed, large overjet
Class II molar relation
www.indiandentalacademy.com
117
118. The Development of Occlusion in
Class II/2 malocclusion
www.indiandentalacademy.com
118
119. Change in Incisor and Molar region in Class
II /2 , from deciduous to permanent
In Decid. Dentition
Overjet less,high lip
line
Mand incisor erupt
Normally Max erupting
slightly upright
Lower lip – lingual
tipping of L. Incisor
Lower lip – lingual tipping
of U. Incisor
In adult, U. C. Incisor
tipped severly palatall
Continued erution
– till vertical contact
www.indiandentalacademy.com
119
120. Class II /2 with more space in anterior
segment
Lingual tipping ( By L Lip)
U C P incisor - Continous
Arch with B & C
U L P incisor Erupt in
normal orientation as
sufficient space available
•Lingual tipping of U L P
incisor by L lip.
•Lingual tipping of lower
incisors.
•Rectangular arch form
www.indiandentalacademy.com
120
121. Class II /2 with less space in anterior
segment
•Lingual tipping ( By L Lip)
•U C P incisor - Continous
Arch with B & C
• Already limited space,
reduced further by palatal
tipping of centrals .
• Lateral erupts labially
• L lip placed lingual to laterals
•Max. laterals rest on the L lip.
•Max Central and Mand incisors
are perpendicular to Occ plane
www.indiandentalacademy.com
121
122. The Development of dentition in
Class III
www.indiandentalacademy.com
122
123. In Deciduous dentition
Lower ant placed ventrally to
max. less overbite
Mand dental arch ventrally
placed, reverse overjet
Large mesial step
www.indiandentalacademy.com
123
124. In Intertransitional period
Incisal surface of
U incisor contact ligual
surface of lower
Mand dental arch ventrally
placed, reverse overjet
Mand perm !st molar
occludes too far
mesially to max
www.indiandentalacademy.com
124
125. In Permanent dentition
Incisal surface of U incisor
contact ligual surface of
lower
Mand dental arch ventrally
placed, reverse overjet
Mand perm !st molar
occludes too far
mesially to max
www.indiandentalacademy.com
125
127. Anterior open bite
Asymmetrical open bite
due to thumb sucking
in Deciduous dentition
Open bite due to abnormal
Tongue position
(symmetrical)
www.indiandentalacademy.com
127
128. Posterior open bite
Open bite due to incomplete
eruption of teeth.Resulting
from interpositioning
of tongue
Open bite combined with
inadequate contacts.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
128
129. ClassII /1 Subdivison
•
•
•
Class I on right side, class II on left
Overjet overbite too large
Midline shift.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
129
130. ClassIII Subdivison
•
•
•
Class I on right side, class III on left
Anterior crossbite exists
Midline shift.
www.indiandentalacademy.com
130
132. Bilateral Crossbite
On both sides maxillary molars occlude with their
buccal cusps instead of their palatal ones
www.indiandentalacademy.com
132
133. Total exo-occlusion in ClassII/1
All
maxillary teeth positioned exteriorly to mandibular
Brodie Syndrome or Telescope bite
www.indiandentalacademy.com
133
134. Total endo-occlusion in Class III
All maxillary teeth positioned interiorly to mandibular
ones
www.indiandentalacademy.com
134
135. Refrences :
Oral Anatomy - Berkovitz
Development of Dentition – Van der Linden
Transition of human Dentition – PGM Vander Linden
Handbook of orthodontics – Moyers
Contemporary orthodontics –Proffit
Orthhodontics - T. M. graber
Oral histology – Tencate
Dental Anatomy – Wheelers
Dentistry for child – Mc Donald
www.indiandentalacademy.com
135
136. Thank you
For more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
www.indiandentalacademy.com
136