Lab procedures for cast partial dentures. /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy

LABORATORY
PROCEDURES FOR
CAST PARTIAL
DENTURES

www.indiandentalacademy.com

INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY
Leader in continuing dental education


CONTENTS
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►

i.

INTRODUCTION.
DUPLICATION OF CASTS.
BLOCKOUT AND RELIF OF CASTS
CAST PREPRATION
BLOCKOUT TECHNIQUES
FLUID BLOCK OUT
TAPERED VERSUS PARALLEL
iii.
ARBITRARY BLOCKOUT.
WAX CONTOURING.
SPRUING , INVESTING, BURNOUT AND CASTING
OF THE FRAME WORK.
FINISHING AND POLISHING OF PARTIAL
DENTURES.
ATTACHMENT OF WROUGHT WIRE CLASP ARMS.
OCCLUSAL ADJUSTMENTS.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.
ii.

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INTRODUCTION
► The removable partial denture framework should

be constructed in such a manner requiring a high
level of communication between clinician and
technician if a quality denture is to be achieved.

► Knowledge of the laboratory phase of partial

denture construction is essential for the clinician,
who must assume total responsibility for the
design and the quality control of all aspects of its
construction.


For the laboratory construction of the removable
partial denture following steps should be kept in
mind:
► Presence of a properly prepared and articulated

master cast.
► A diagnostic cast with a neat and specific design
carefully drawn on it.
► A work authorization order covering all aspects of
the desired denture must be given to the
technician if the partial denture is being fabricated
in a dental laboratory.
► Anything less will compromise quality of the partial
denture.

► Dental laboratory technology has increased

rapidly during the past several decades that
has resulted from the build up of military
services during 1940 and 1950 such as
ceramics , porcelain bonded to metal and
precision attachments requiring more
specialized training.
► Therefore , the dentist must provide the
clinical and professional aspect of patient
treatment planning and processing of the
prosthesis.

DUPLICATION OF THE
CASTS.
PURPOSE OF DUPLICATION
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Preservation of original casts.
To check the fit of the frame
work.
Processing of interim prosthesis
with wax relief and block out on
the original cast for successful
duplication.
Formation of investment cast for
framework fabrication.

Duplicating machine

Slowly flowing of investment material into the flask

FORMATION OF INVESTMENT CAST FOR FRAMEWORK
FABRICATION.

Retripoding Of The Cast: Determine a specific path
of insertion and removal for the denture and prepares
both hard and soft tissues to be in harmony with path of
insertion and removal, it is critical that this exact relation
must be maintained.
► Three widely separated marks are placed on the master
cast with the dental surveyor vertical rod in a fixed
position will allow rapid repositioning of the cast in the
laboratory. These marks must be placed in areas that
are not involved with design outlines. To simplify this
repositioning for the technician if the processing is being
done in laboratory the marks are placed on the lingual
surfaces of the cast such that all three can be seen from
the same view.
►


Vertical rod in
surveyor used to
place the mark on the
cast.

Reference points on the
cast


► Height

of Contour: With the master cast
positioned on the survey table by the three tripod
marks, carbon marker substitutes for the analyzing
rod in the surveyor arm which must be placed in
the height of contour line on the involved teeth and
soft tissue areas. The survey table is moved
smoothly along the surveyor base to contact the
lead.
► Design Transfer: Without removing the master
cast from the survey table by changing the tilt, the
design is transferred from the diagnostic cast. A
dense cast of improved dental stone is unlikely to
be damaged by the design transfer drawing. In
situations where the master cast is weak with a
chalky surface, care must be taken not to abrade
the cast surface with the carbon marker.

Height of contour line is
placed on the cast with
marking lead in surveyor.

Transferring of the framework from diagnostic
cast to the master cast.

BLOCK OUT AND RELIEF.

► Elimination of undesirable undercuts on the

master cast “ block out”.
► Before this the maxillary cast is beaded –
outlining of the master cast with no 2
diamond bur, to get a positive contact
against palatal tissues to reduce the
packing of the food beneath the major
connector as it stops 3-4 mm from the
gingival margin, also spraying of the master
cast with aerosol spray that deposits a seal
on the cast prevents inhalation of aerosol
plastic..

Placement of bead with a round
bur no. 2 for outlining of maxillary
major connector.

Spraying of model spray on
the cast to prevent
inhalation of aerosol plastic.

Placing of fluid
block out wax.

Fluid block out is done with a thin sheet of soft base
plate wax sheet with one stick of green inlay wax ,it
must not be placed above the survey line or in the
area of retentive clasp, shaping of the block out wax
is done by contouring the wax in predetermined in
the area of path of insertion, excess is removed by
the blade of surveyor which lies perpendicular to the
surveyor base.
► All tooth borne partial dentures should be blocked
out parallel to the path of insertion and tooth –
tissue- borne dentures should be given a tapered
block out for freedom of movement during function .
► Wax contouring is done with the block out blade
positioned properly beneath the height of contour to
get smooth layer of wax to eliminate undesirable
undercuts.
►


► Attempts to remove wax from above the

contour line with the block out instrument
has the risk of removing some of the cast
surface. When the cast's surface is weak or
chalky, this scraping action subtracts from
the dimension of the cast and inevitably
results in a casting that is too large to seat
without reshaping.
► The duplication colloids can rebound from
the distortion caused by removing the cast
from the mold only if there are no large
undercuts present (2 to 3 mm maximum).
Larger undercuts will distort or even tear the
fragile colloid.

Block out wax must not be placed in the area of
survey line or in the area of retentive clasp tip.

Placement of excess block out wax in the undercut area.

► This block out is arbitrary and is not

contoured with the block out instrument.
Areas of gross soft tissue undercuts can be
arbitrarily eliminated using soft wax, clay,
mortite.
► Deep maxillary palatal clefts and irregularities
in the area covered by the major connector
are filled with wax to eliminate potential sharp
areas on the tissue surface of the casting.
One margin of the relief wax forms the
internal finish line of the framework.

Application of investment
on the cast for complete
adaptation of investment.

Trimming of investment mold
for preparing the sprue for
burn out

Arbitrary block out of non critical areas with clay.

Covering of area to be covered by mandibular major connector with a thin
layer of wax for smooth surface.

Filling of Palatal cleft and other irregularities with
wax to be covered by maxillary major connector.


DUPLICATING MATERIALS AND FLASKS

Materials are of two types :
o Silicone
o Colloidal – made fluid by heating and return
to a gel state while cooling.
Duplicating Flasks: A number of flask are
available.
 WILLS FLASK TYPE E , TYPE F both of
them have a Formica ring of 4 inch of
diameter inside and 2 inch height ,
 BELL SHAPED FLASK ,
 KERR FLASK ,
 LIGHT WEIGHT BRASS FLASK.

Wirosil duplicating flask with stabilizing
insert and 3 replaceable palate formers
Wirotop automatic mixing and


metering unit

TECHNIQUE OF
DUPLICATION
Cast is placed at the bottom of the flask after
immersion into water and the material is broken
into small pieces and heated to avoid lump
formation, small continuous stream of material is
flowed in the posterior area, after filling the flask
material is added to completely fill the feeder ring,
place the flask under running water 2.5 cm deeper
till the material feeder ring completely gels after
which the flask is completely immersed in water
for 15 mins.

Placement of master cast after
relief and block out on the base of
duplicating flask.

Duplicating flask filled slowly with hydro colloid
material.

► Removal of feeder ring and cutting of projecting

material , exposure of base of the cast by
inverting the flask , application of rubber
suction cup at the base of the flask and
removal of mold from the flask is done
carefully.

►

After which the stone or investment material is
properly mixed and spatulated and vibrated
around the tooth to avoid air trapping
completely filling the flask and is covered by
wet towel for prevention of dehydration of mold
due to loss of water of crystallization .

Wiropress pressure compaction
unit

Casts after hardening is taken out
by blowing compressed air
between mold and cast.

Placement of duplicating
cast in vacuumed jar for 2
mins , hardening of cast
under pressure ,
detachment of cast by
blowing compressed air
between cast and mold,
finally spray the surfactant
to prevent the reaction
between investment
material to get accurate
casting surface .
Spraying of surfactant.

Base of flask placed in
running water.

Teasing of cast www.indiandentalacademy.com
from hydro colloid duplicating
material

REFRACTORY CAST

Refractory (or investment) materials must be
measured and mixed exactly according to the
manufacturer's instructions to ensure that the
expansion of the mold during burnout will
match the shrinkage of the alloy.
► Gypsum-bonded investments, commonly
called low-heat investments, are used for
casting Type IV partial denture gold and
Ticonium alloys. This refractory materials can
be burned out at 704°C (1300 OF) without
causing breakdown of the investment.

Investments used for Vitallium, Nobillium, Jelenko's
AEG, and other chrome-cobalt alloys are termed highheat and are burned out at temperatures in the area of
1037' C (1900' F). These high-heat investments are
phosphate-bonded and usually require a special liquid
to mix with the refractory material.
► The manufacturer's instructions give the time required
for complete set of the refractory material When this
stage is reached, the cast is carefully re moved from
the mold and placed in a drying oven at 93' C (2000
F). When dry, the cast is trimmed to within 6 mm of the
proposed design. The trimming is done on a dry cast
trimmer to eliminate the possibility of a slurry mixture
accumulating on the cast and changing its contours
and dimensions.
►


WAXING OF THE PARTIAL DENTURE
FRAMEWORK.

Preformed plastic wax patterns are available
which are made from soft plastic material
which tend to stretch on removal from their
backing .
Design Transfer: Before the actual waxing
can begin, the design must once again be
transferred. The master cast is evaluated
and measurements made with a Boley
gauge to transfer exactly the outline of the
framework to the refractory cast .

Preformed plastic wax patterns available commercially.

Boley gauge used to determine
the position of inferior border of
major connector.

Use of soft sharp pencil for
transfer of design on the
refractory cast.

Ledge created bywww.indiandentalacademy.comused for positioning
block out wax
of retentive clasp arm.

A common soft lead pencil, sharpened to a point, is
used. Care must be taken to draw with a minimum
of pressure so that no damage to the cast surface
can occur.

Waxing Technique: The plastic patterns are "glued"
to the refractory cast with a mixture of acetone and
plastic pattern scraps mixed to a watery
consistency. The tacky liquid is painted on the
design outline-with a fine brush and allowed to dry
for just a few seconds. The pattern can then be
adapted with confidence that it will adhere to the
cast Should the pattern separate from the
refractory cast.

Use of surveyor and an
electrically heated shaping
blade to remove excess wax.

Removal of excess wax for shaping
excess wax.


SPRUING THE FRAMEWORK TECHNIQUE
► The actual spruing construction depends almost

entirely on the instructions provided by the
manufacturer of the alloy system. Ticonium uses a
single sprue approach through the refractory
cast.Gold castings and a number of high-heat
chrome-cobalt alloys sprue the casting from above
with multiple sprues.
► Sprue Size: Gauges of the wax used for the
sprue leads are critical, and the manufacturer's
directions must be followed. There must be no
constrictions in the sprue lead that would cause
the molten metal to flow 'from a thick to a thin area
and then back to a thick area. The turbulence set
up by this type of sprue often results in internal
mold deformation and castings that have
inclusions.

FUNCTIONS OF SPRUE
►
►

►
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►

Acts as a channel opening leading from the crucible to the
cavity in which the framework is to be cast.
Leads the molten metal from the crucible into the mold
cavity- large enough to accommodate the entering stream
and proper shape to lead metal into the mold cavity with
least amount of turbulence .
Acts as a reservoir of molten metal preventing porosity
caused by shrinkage.
Sprue channels must be long radii and easy turns and
enters the mold cavity from a direction designed to prevent
splashing of the molten metal so the sprue channels must
not be at right angle turns which create turbulence creating
gases entrapment leading to faulty castings.
Attachment of sprue at a bulky point of the mold pattern , if
two bulky points exists with in a thin section between each
of the bulky spots must be sprued , points of attachment
should be flared out preventing local constrictions.

SPRU TYPES
Multiple.: A majority of cast partial dentures requires multiple sprue
using 8- 12 gauge round wax for main sprue, and 12 – 18 gauge
round wax shapes for auxiliary sprue. However a single sprue is
preferred for cast palates and cast metal bases for the
mandibular arch . Use of a few sprues of large diameter rather
than several smaller sprues. All sprues must be short and direct
as possible. No abrupt changes in the direction of the sprue( no
T shaped junctions). Reinforcement of all the junctions with
additional wax to prevent constrictions in the channel to prevent
v shaped sections of investment that might break during
casting.
Single: A single sprue must be attached to the wax pattern in such
a way that the direction of flow of molten metal is parallel to the
long axis of the single sprue.
Auxiliary sprue: Is attached to the framework of long span bridges
to ensure sufficient flow of molten metal , also is required in
cases to support heavy metal pontics – in which the molten
metal flows from thinner area to thicker areas .They are made
form round wax forms one third to one forth of diameter of the
major sprue.

Mandibular sprued pattern with three
8 gauge sprue attached to the
denture base minor connector and
direct retainer joined at a centre sprue
hole.

Maxillary wax up with 8 gauge
multiple sprues or a single main
sprue located posteriorly


Single sprue
transversing
through base
of the cast to
mandibular
framework.

Attachment of
multiple sprue used
to cast gold and high
heat chromium
cobalt alloy.

Placement of secondary spure for easy flow of molten metal in
thin areas of pattern.

Wax pattern sprued www.indiandentalacademy.com
to all the parts.

INVESTING THE SPRUE
PATTERNS
It can be divided into:
► Investment cast on which the pattern is
formed.
► The outer investment surrounding the
cast and the pattern


Injection process for flasking

► Investment cast on which the pattern is formed is

confined within the metal ring which may or may
not be removed after the outer investment is set
so the inside layer is lined with a layer of
cellulose , asbestos or ceramic fiber paper for
thermal and setting expansion compensation in all
directions.
► According to Peyton 1949 for the outer alloy
having higher melting temperature , an investment
containing quartz is held together by an ethyl
silicate or sodium silicate binder. In cases of gold
alloys the casting shrinkage is 1.74% and for
cobalt chromium alloys it is 2.3%.

BRUMFIELD GAVE PURPOSE OF
INVESTING
► Strength necessary to hold the forces exerted by

entering stream of molten metal till it hardens.
► Provides a smooth surface for the mold cavity so
that final casting requires less finishing and
polishing.
► Acts as an avenue of escape for most of the gases
entrapped in the mold cavity.
► Provides necessary compensation for the
dimensional changes of the alloy from the molten
to solid , cold state.

BRUMFIELD FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
DENTAL CASTING PROCEDURE
►
►
►
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►
►
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►
►

Care and accuracy with which the cast is reproduced.
Designing of the framework
Care and cleanliness in waxing up the cast.
Expansion of the wax caused by temperature change
Size , length, configuration, points of attachments and
manner of attachment of the sprues.
Choice of investment.
Location of pattern in the mold.
Mixing water: amount, temperature, and impurities.
Spatulation of the investment during the mixing.
Restrain offered to the expansion of the investment due to
investment ring.

► Setting time.
► Burn – out temperature and time
► Method of casting.
► Gases: adhered, entrapment and absorbed.
► Forces used in throwing the metal into the mold
► Shrinkage

on cooling
► Removal from the investment a after casting
► Scrubbing ,pickling
► Polishing and finishing
► Heat handling.

BURNOUT PROCEDURE
► It serves three purposes :

(i) Absorbs moisture from the within
the mold.
(ii) It vaporizes the gases and
eliminates the pattern creating a
vacuum cavity in the mold.
(iii) Expands the mold to compensate
for contraction of the metal on cooling.

► Investment must be moist at the start of the

burnout cycle.
► It should not be burned out on the same day
but must be soaked in water for a few
minutes before to be placed in the furnace.
► Mold must be placed in the oven with the
sprue hole down and the orientation mark
forward .

FURNACES
►

Burnout furnaces can be either electric or gas and must be vented to allow the
noxious fumes that result from the burnout to escape the work area. They vary
greatly in capacity, from industrial-type gas furnaces capable of holding 25
dental casting molds to small electric furnaces with a capacity of only 1 or 2
molds.

►

Induction casting is based on the electric currents in a metal core caused by
induction from a magnetic field. A heating coil of copper tubing is shaped to fit
closely around the casting crucible and is attached to an alternating current
source. The alternating current in the coil sets up eddy currents of electrons in
the crucible and the alloy in it. Excellent casting can be achieved by
combination of gas and oxygen for alloys that melt close to 1093 degree
centigrate . Oxyacetylene mixture is available for casting requiring higher heat

►

Modern induction casting machines are normally set to cast once the desired
temperature has been achieved. Some alloys require a heat soak period of up
to 3 seconds during which the alloy is kept at the casting temperature by a
rapid on and off of the alternating current. These machines can be set to allow
the operator to determine the exact moment to cast.

Electric Burn out furnace.

Small Burn out Furnace.


An Electric eye for
An induction Casting Machine. measuring of temperature
inside the casting machine.

A clean crucible loaded with alloy.

A manual release handle in centrifugal
casting machine.

REMOVAL OF CASTING FROM
THE INVESTMENT
► After the casting is complete the mold is

allowed to cool and at the approximate time
the mold is broken by tapping it with a
wooden mallet to break off the outer layer
of investment. First layer of investment if
removed by sand blasting.


Investment pattern removed from burn out oven and
investment placed in the induction casting machine.

Divesting of the framework

Divesting of framework
with aluminum oxide.

FINISHING AND POLISHING OF
THE CAST PARTIAL DENTURE
It can be divided into:
► rough finishing and polishing.
► fitting of the frame work.
► rubber wheeling and final polishing.
► sectioning and resoldering of the frame
work.
► occlusal adjustment.

Rough finishing and polishing: Areas of major connector must be
shaped and rubber wheeled to a satin surface , surfaces
contacting the tooth only positive blebs are removed, Areas of
rest and rest seats , retentive clasp tips, guiding plane of minor
connectors must be minimally polished , cast clasp arm should
not be polished too much as it will distort .
► Fitting the framework: viewing of first spots the bind the
framework to seat properly on to the cast, use of special
powered sprays and liquids that act as disclosing media to seat
the frame work properly on to the cast, seating and spot grinding
until the rest completely seat on to the cast as the retentive
clasp may engage into the undercut area so that the area of clap
tip allows the clasp to pass under the height of contour.
► Rubber wheeling and final polishing: It is done after the casting
completely seats the master cast without rocking or distortion,
use of rag and felt wheels are used at high speeds lathe to give
a smooth and shining surface to the framework, ultrasonic
cleaning is finally done to remove the traces of polishing
materials
►


Use of coarse abrasive disk to
detach the sprue from the
casting at a high speed lathe.

Shaping of critical areas
such as retentive clasp
tips using a fine stone.


Removal of undercut
area of clasp tip for
proper fit of the frame
work to seat on the
mater cast.

Carborundom rubber wheel
used to smoothen the
scratches and irregularities
caused by finishing
procedures.

Gross finishing with abrasive
stones or sintered diamonds.

Polishing framework finished with
a rubber polishing prior to final “
high – shine polishing.

Use of disclosing agents to
improve the fit of framework
on the cast .

Areas of interference
indicated by displacement of
disclosing medium.


►

►

Sectioning and resoldering of the framework: It is done only
when the final framework appears to rock or does not fit to
the master cast or in the patients mouth so sectioning is
done to seat the sections and solder the parts together,
minor connectors and some of the major connectors are
sectioned and soldered with precious metal solder or non
precious brazing alloys which is done by electro soldering
device.
Occlusal adjustment: occlusal and incisal rests must be
waxed heavily enough to allow them to cast completely ,
minimum clearance of less than 1.5 mm is kept for rest and
embrasure clasps

WROUGHT WIRE RETENTIVE CLASP ARMS
►

►

Retentive clasp arms can be constructed of wrought wire
as well as cast alloy. Many clinicians prefer the wire clasp,
believing that they will have a greater degree of control in
adapting and adjusting the clasp. Since wrought wire is
normally round, it will flex equally in all directions. This
uniform flexibility is thought to be "kind" to the abutment
tooth.
Wires available for removable partial dentures normally run
from 17 to 20 gauge and can be made of either precious
metal alloys (gold, palladium, platinum, silver) or non
precious alloys (stainless steel, nickel chromium, nickelchromium-cobalt). Eighteen- and nineteen-gauge nickelchrome-cobalt wires are currently the most popular. The
high cost of precious metals has reduced the use of these
wires. While non precious wires are not as resilient as
precious wires they have proven to be clinically
dependable.

Electro soldering machine.

Reassembling of sectioned
parts of the frame work .
Placement of electro
soldering tips for joining of
the parts of the sectioned
framework.


Smoothening of soldered
joint .

Heavily waxed occlusal rest
for proper casting of the rest .

Use of wrought wire
Contouring of
clasps used in temporary
wrought wire.
prosthesis.

Checking the position of
clasp by positioning it on the
cast

Addition of wrought
wire clasp by
embedding it into the
acrylic resin


►

►

Wrought wire clasps are almost universally used as
repair additions for fractured or distorted cast clasps
and on a variety of temporary and transitional
prostheses as well. It is essential that the clinician
develop and maintain skill in the manipulation of the
wrought wire clasp.

Wrought wire can be attached to the framework in 4 ways:
embedding of the wire piece into the acrylic denture part,
induced in the wax up of the framework and the metal
casts to the wire, soldering of the wrought wire on to the
frame meshwork well away from the area were it flexes,

Addition of wrought wire clasp to the framework by soldering to
all parts of framework.


Shaping of wrought wire to the tooth after soldering.

Master cast with relief , block out, completed pattern on master cast with
major connector , plastic clasp form resting on investment ledges , wrought
wire and with open mesh with lingual bar

Finished casting placed on the
master cast

SUMMARY AND
CONCLUSION
►

►

Although it is certainly impractical and perhaps
impossible for the clinician to be actively involved with the
construction phases of the removable partial denture
framework, so the dentist must keep himself update to the
newer techniques developed for the processing of the
prosthesis in turn to achieve a harmonious and effective
prosthesis keeping patients needs in mind .
The dentist who has the confidence to interject personally
into the construction phase of the framework and establish
and maintain a rational dialogue with the laboratory gains
not only a better mechanical product but also the respect of
the auxiliary worker.

REFERENCES.
►

►
►

►
►
►

►

Applegate O. C. :Alloys for removable partial dentures;
Factors considered choosing an alloy; Dent Clin North
Am; 4: 583-590;1960.
Asgar K. A.: New alloy for partial dentures. J Prosthet
Dent 23:36-43; 1970.
Blatterefein L. et al.: Minimum acceptable procedures for
satisfactory removable partial denture service. J Prosthet
Dent. 27:84-87;1972.
Brown E.T. : The dentist , the laboratory technician and
the prescription law. J. P.D: 15:1132-1138;1965.
Calomeni AA: Problem areas encountered by dental
laboratories. J Prosthet Dent. 19:523-529; 1968.
Clinical removable partial prosthodontics: Kenneth L.
Stewart D.D.S , Kenneth D. Rudd and William A.
Kuebker- second edition
Dutton DA.: Standard abbreviations (definitions) for use
in dental laboratory work authorizations. J.P.D. 27;94-95:
1972.

► Elbert C.A, and Reyge G.: The effect of heat

treatment on micro hardness of cobalt chromium
alloy. J.P.D. 15;873-879:1965.
► Fletcher C. F .: Combating the illegal practice of
dentistry. J.P.D. 35:92-96;1976.
► Grunewold A.H et al.: Role of dental technician in a
prosthetic service. Dent Clin North Am. 4;359-370:
1960.
► Henderson D and Frazier Q.: Communicating with
dental laboratory technicians: Dent Clin North
Am.14:603-615;1970.
► Mc Craken’s removable partial prosthodontics- Glen
P. Mc Givney, Alen B. Carr: tenth addition.
► Mc Craken’s removable partial prosthodontics- Glen
P. Mc Givney, Alen B. Carr, David T.
Brown.:Eleventh addition. Morris H. F. et al:The
influence of heat treatment on several types of base
metal removable partial denture. J.P.D. 41:388395;1979.

Olin P.S. et al: Current prosthodontics practice- a dental
laboratory service. J.P.D. 61:742-745;1989.
► Payene S.H: The school , practitioner and the denturist
J.P.D. 12;812-816: 1962.
► Rudd K.D , Morrow RM and Rhoads J E: Dental
laboratory procedures: vol 3;removable partial dentures:
2 nd edition.
► Smith G.P: The responsibility of the dentist toward dental
-laboratory procedures in fixed and removable partial
denture prosthesis. J Prosthet Dent. 13:295-30 1; 1963.
► Taylor D.F . Et al: Physical properties of dental
chromium cobalt alloys: Jam Dent Assoc. 56:343-351;
1958.
► Weintraub G..S: Dental student as a technician: to what
degree ? J.P.D. 39;459-465;1978.
►


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Lab procedures for cast partial dentures. /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy

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Lab procedures for cast partial dentures. /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy