IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 10 October 2022

International Journal
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And
Educational Research
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1694-2493
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Vol.21 No.10

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 10 (October 2022)
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VOLUME 21 NUMBER 10 October 2022
Table of Contents
Digital Leadership of School Heads and Job Satisfaction of Teachers in the Philippines during the Pandemic .......1
Jem Cloyd M. Tanucan, Crislee V. Negrido, Grace N. Malaga
Unpacking Determinants of Middle-School Children’s Direct Nature Experiences (DNEs): An Island Perspective
.................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Faruhana Abdullah, Nor Asniza Ishak, Mohammad Zohir Ahmad
A Conceptual Model of Culture-Based English Learning Materials in Indonesia ....................................................... 50
Muhammad Lukman Syafii, Ghulam Asrofi Buntoro, Alip Sugianto, Nurohman ., Sutanto
Alternative Digital Credentials: UAE’s First Adopters’ Design, Development, and Implementation Part (1) ........ 64
El-Farra Samar
Academic Dishonesty and the Fraud Diamond: A Study on Attitudes of UAE Undergraduate Business Students
during the COVID-19 Pandemic......................................................................................................................................... 88
Omar Al Serhan, Roudaina Houjeir, Mariam Aldhaheri
Through the Lens of Virtual Students: Challenges and Opportunities ....................................................................... 109
Joseph A. Villarama, John Paul E. Santos, Joseph P. Adsuara, Jordan F. Gundran, Marius Engelbert Geoffrey C. Castillo
EFL Pre-service Teachers' Online Reading Strategy Use and their Insight into Teaching Reading ........................ 139
Anita Fatimatul Laeli, Slamet Setiawan, Syafi'ul Anam
Pre-service Teachers Reflection on their Undergraduate Educational Research Experience through Online
Instructional Delivery......................................................................................................................................................... 161
Marchee T. Picardal, Joje Mar P. Sanchez
Validating the Component of E-Learning Antecedents, Digital Readiness and Usage Behavior towards E-
Learning Performance: A Pilot Study .............................................................................................................................. 178
Mohamad Aidil Hasim, Juhaini Jabar, Atirah Sufian, Nor Fauziana Ibrahim
Exploring Challenges to Inclusion of Children with Intellectual Disabilities in Early Childhood Development in
Mutoko District, Zimbabwe .............................................................................................................................................. 195
Mercy Ncube, Mabatho Sedibe
Motivational and Perceptual Factors for Choosing Teaching as a Career in Chile: Sex Differences ....................... 212
Álvaro González Sanzana, Katherine Acosta García, Jorge Valenzuela Carreño, Jorge Miranda Ossandón, Lidia Valdenegro
Fuentes
Exploring Learners’ Experiences of Receiving Formative Written Assessment Feedback in Business Studies as a
Subject in South Africa....................................................................................................................................................... 228
Preya Pillay, Raudina Balele
The Analysis of Natural Science Lesson-Plans Integrating the Principles of Transformative Pedagogy ............... 249

Wiets Botes, Emma Barnett
The Impact of Metalanguage on EFL Learners' Grammar Recognition ...................................................................... 265
Abuelgasim Sabah Elsaid Mohammed, Abdulaziz B Sanosi
The Implementation of Assistive Technology with a Deaf Student with Autism...................................................... 280
Asma Alzahrani
Student Perceptions of Covid-19 Induced E-Learning in State Universities In Zimbabwe ...................................... 296
Ashton Mudzingiri, Sanderson Abel, Tafirenyika Mafugu
Exploring Numeracy Skills of Lower Secondary School Students in Mountainous Areas of Northern Vietnam .309
Thi Ha Cao, Huu Chau Nguyen, Xuan-Cuong Dang, Cam Tho Chu, Tuan Anh Le, Thi Thu Huong Le
Innate Mathematical Characteristics and Number Sense Competencies of Junior High School Students ............. 325
Raymundo A. Santos, Leila M. Collantes, Edwin D. Ibañez, Florante P. Ibarra, Jupeth T. Pentang
Exploring the Educational Value of Indo-Harry Potter to Design Foreign Language Learning Methods and
Techniques........................................................................................................................................................................... 341
Mega Febriani Sya, Novi Anoegrajekti, Ratna Dewanti, Bambang Heri Isnawan
Bridging Culture and Science Education: Implications for Research and Practice .................................................... 362
Izzah Mardhiya Mohammad Isa, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin, Fatin Aliah Phang
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as a Teaching and Learning Tool: A Study of Students’
Readiness and Satisfaction................................................................................................................................................. 381
Rozaini Ahmad, Usha Nagasundram, Mohamed Nadzri Mohamed Sharif, Yazilmiwati Yaacob, Malissa Maria Mahmud,
Noor Syazwani Ishak, Muhamad Safwan Mohd A’seri, Ismail Ibrahim
Gender Differences in High School Students’ Beliefs about Mathematical Problem Solving ..................................395
Edgar John Sintema, Thuthukile Jita
Teachers’ Perceived Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Biology at Selected Secondary Schools in
Lusaka .................................................................................................................................................................................. 418
Thumah Mapulanga, Gilbert Nshogoza, Ameyaw Yaw
The Influence of Socio-Affective Learning and Metacognition Levels on EFL Listening and Speaking Skills in
Online Learning ..................................................................................................................................................................436
Titis Sulistyowati, Januarius Mujianto, Dwi Rukmini, Rudi Hartono

1
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 1-18, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.1
Received Au 4, 2022; Revised Oct 8, 2022; Accepted Oct 19, 2022
Digital Leadership of School Heads and Job
Satisfaction of Teachers in the Philippines during
the Pandemic
Jem Cloyd M. Tanucan*
Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines
Crislee V. Negrido
Talisay City National High School, Talisay City, Cebu, Philippines
Grace N. Malaga
Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines
Abstract. This study examines school heads' digital leadership as a
predictor of teachers' job satisfaction in the Philippines during the
pandemic. A total of 520 public school teachers across the 16 regions of
the country answered the validated online survey questionnaires
between March and May 2022. With the descriptive-predictive research
design, descriptive statistics, and regression analysis, the study finds that
school heads have a satisfactory level of digital leadership as perceived
by their teachers. This finding suggests that Filipino school heads can, at
least to a satisfactory level, guide their schools and stakeholders toward
digital transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a rapidly
changing digital and social media landscape. Furthermore, Filipino
teachers experienced satisfactory job satisfaction during the pandemic,
which suggests that they continue to cope with and adapt to the new
work and educational changes despite the plethora of challenges and
transitions. Finally, this study reveals that school heads' digital leadership
predicts teachers' job satisfaction. When leaders are competent to lead and
model in the digital age, their subordinates become more satisfied with
their work. Therefore, training programs for improving school heads'
digital leadership are necessary to enhance their teachers' job satisfaction,
especially since technology plays a significant part in diverse educational
activities.
Keywords: digital leadership; job satisfaction; Philippines; school heads;
teachers
*
Corresponding author: Jem Cloyd M. Tanucan, tanucanj@cnu.edu.ph

2
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has overwhelmed the education system with changes
in the teaching and learning process, professional development, communication,
and management (Tanucan & Uytico, 2021). The abrupt use and integration of
digital tools and platforms, especially in countries with technological gaps, have
complicated the teaching and learning process. Nevertheless, learning and work
continue amid all the issues and challenges, and everyone in school has to utilize
the necessary technologies and other tools for digital communication in their daily
activities. Digitalization became the answer to addressing the inability to hold
face-to-face classes effectively and efficiently as well as improving the
administration and supervision of schools (Babacan & Dogru, 2022). The role of
school heads in this situation is crucial. They must fill in whatever knowledge and
skill gaps they may have to be more equipped to achieve digital transformation
in schools (Aksal, 2015). They must also take on the mantle of more
technologically inclined leadership to help teachers and stakeholders utilize
digital tools and other technological platforms in their educational activities
(Karakose et al., 2021). Furthermore, they must act as digital leaders to provide
the necessary skills and knowledge for a 21st-century education to harness digital
transformations in schools (Veguilla-Martinez et al., 2022). This situation
instigated the discussion on digital leadership, especially since education and
administrative practices are increasingly technologically integrated.
Digitalization in schools is deliberately becoming the norm (Ainslee, 2018).
Among many other efforts towards digitalization, schools' roadmap includes
utilizing various online learning platforms, digital textbooks, and digitized
administrative activities. This period of transformation lays the foundation for a
world where education becomes more accessible and available as long as digital
and technological infrastructure and resources are prepared (Tanucan, 2019;
Tanucan & Hernani, 2018). With this change comes the concept of digital
leadership that can thrive in a digital environment where technology-oriented
abilities support effective management and teamwork (Abbu & Gopalakrishna,
2021; Bresciani et al., 2021). According to Waldron (2021), digital leadership is a
new management approach that supports and propels digital change in
organizations to enhance the flexibility, efficiency, and effectiveness of
transactions and procedures. This idea corroborates the explanation of De Araujo
et al. (2021) that digital leadership is the ability of leaders to develop an insightful
vision for the application, adoption, and promotion of technology at work.
Likewise, it exhibits the ability of leaders to develop, manage, guide, and apply
information and communications technology (ICT) for further improvement of
institutions (Chin, 2010). Furthermore, digital leadership can initiate sustainable
change (Trenerry et al., 2021) as it is known to be a cross-hierarchical, team-
oriented, and suitable type of leadership (Oberer & Erkollar, 2018). Hence, school
leaders with digital leadership can guide schools and their stakeholders toward
digital transformation to be adaptable and remain competitive in a rapidly
changing digital and social media landscape. In this situation, school leaders have
to be guided by a set of standards of digital leadership so they can benchmark
good practices and develop the essential abilities to harness digital transformation
in their respective institutions.

3
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has been conducting
international-level research on the standardization of technology-oriented skills
for the successful and long-lasting integration of technology in education for
various groups (students, educators, coaches, and educational leaders) (ISTE,
2022). The ISTE standards have been acknowledged by various researchers in
different nations, as seen in their studies that integrated the concept (e.g., Baek &
Sung, 2020; Gomez et al., 2022; Kimm et al., 2020; Vucaj, 2020). More specifically,
the latest standards for educational leaders of ISTE involve five areas: Equity and
Citizenship Advocate, Visionary Planner, Empowering Leader, Systems
Designer, and Connected Learner (ISTE, 2022). These standards serve as a
framework for the digital education age, no matter where school heads are on the
journey to integrate and promote technology in education. With the standards set
for school heads to embrace (Van Wart, 2017), they would be more capable of
defining and executing a radical change strategy to harness digital transformation
in their institutions rather than simply digitizing their work and operations.
Defining the standards for using technology in education would provide teaching
and learning that are more creative and successful for the twenty-first century
(Sam, 2011). It would also help school leaders set expectations for technology use
and support rapid-cycle evaluation of technology benefits in teaching, learning,
and administrative functions (Arinto et al., 2020). However, studies that use the
latest ISTE standards to examine school heads' digital leadership are scarce. Thus,
one of the objectives of this study is to respond to this matter.
In the Philippines, digitalization has slowly been changing the landscape of the
country's education. During the pandemic, education from the primary to tertiary
levels employed various teaching and learning methods that involved technology,
which helped ensure the continuity of students' learning and employees' work. In
particular, the Department of Education (DepEd) implemented the Learning
Continuity Plan (LCP) at the basic education level (DepEd, 2020). The
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) also fortified the inherent academic
freedom of higher education institutions to adopt the necessary learning strategy
to continue education at the tertiary level (CHED, 2020). These initiatives have
integrated e-learning, distance learning, and other alternative delivery methods
into education.
Additionally, the country is beginning to digitalize its educational practices with
the launch of numerous initiatives such as DepEd Commons, DepEd TV, DepEd
Radio, DepEd Learning Management System, and DepEd Mobile App, among
others (Ponti, 2021; Hernando-Malipot, 2021). Such initiatives have helped
mobilize the utilization of digital platforms and other technologies in classrooms.
Likewise, they have been instrumental in supplementing the modular learning
adopted by public schools to enhance student learning in various subject areas
during the pandemic (Cho et al., 2021; Potane, 2022). Accordingly, the country's
education is starting to focus on using ICT through the Digital Rise Program
which equips classrooms, teachers, and students with online learning resources
(Llego, 2020). Filipinos are among the world's most active Internet and social
media users (Baclig, 2022), which are vital components for digital transformation
in education.

4
With the country’s efforts toward digitalizing schools, school heads must point
the way forward in establishing a digital culture in schools to utilize their digital
opportunities fully. Creating a digital culture in schools needs digital resources,
such as leaders with developed digital leadership skills, to move it toward its
successful implementation (Pendry & Salvatore, 2015). However, this endeavor
could be a challenge, particularly in light of the numerous obstacles that prevent
the country from fully utilizing and integrating technology in education. Without
the necessary digital infrastructure and school leaders with the skills to use and
model technology use and integration, schools and their stakeholders could
hardly imbibe a culture of innovation and collaboration.
The study by Dotong et al. (2016) identified insufficient financial and
infrastructure support, human capital, management support, and behavioral and
environmental factors as barriers to using and integrating technology in
education. Tanucan et al. (2021) also identified that age is a significant factor for
teachers conducting remote digital teaching. Hence, there is a need for substantial
training for senior teachers who are not technologically inclined or adept. The
Philippines' inadequate digital infrastructure, outdated technology, and slow
Internet connectivity (Salac & Kim, 2016; World Bank, 2020), coupled with the
traditional mindset of school principals, were significant factors for the lack of
technical staff for maintaining computers and computer networks, and providing
support for Internet-related activities (UNESCO-UIS., 2014). This finding
corroborates the study by Hero (2020) citing that principals' technological
leadership does not influence teachers' technological leadership, implying that
principals fell short in modeling and empowering their teachers in integrating
technology into their functions. This situation would help explain why only a
meager 23 percent of leaders in the Philippines considered themselves influential
leaders in the digital era, as indicated in the Global Leadership Forecast 2018
(Development Dimensions International, 2018).
In light of these convoluted concerns, training programs that aim to improve
school heads' digital leadership are justified. The problem is that the country's
programs to capacitate or improve school leaders, particularly in their digital
leadership, vis-à-vis identified standards such as the ISTE standards for education
leaders, have not been deliberately emphasized. The recent study by Arinto et al.
(2020) recommended the same idea, emphasizing the need for school leaders in
the country to take the lead in setting expectations for technology use and
supporting rapid-cycle evaluation of technology benefits following a set of
standards determined by the national office of education. Failure to do so may
adversely impact teachers' job satisfaction, the significant rise in stress and
burnout (Zhai & Du, 2020), and the digital divide in the academic community
(Talandron-Felipe, 2020).
Teachers' job satisfaction plays a crucial role that can affect the completion of
various curricula regardless of the learning platform (Li & Yu, 2022). It is also
crucial for students' overall learning (Devi & Soni, 2013) and schools' attainment
of their objectives and overall growth (Jun, 2015; Sahito & Vaisanen, 2020).

5
Compared with traditional face-to-face teaching, teachers' situations become
more challenging owing to their complex professional roles, disturbed job
satisfaction levels, and lack of digital literacy during the pandemic (Li & Yu, 2022).
Recently, several studies have started examining teachers' job satisfaction, with
some primarily concerned with the predictors, variables, and degrees of job
satisfaction (e.g., Gómez-Leal et al., 2022; Hewett & La Paro, 2020; Richards et al.,
2019).
However, recent studies have examined digital leadership's role in job
satisfaction. Matriadi et al. (2021) found that digital leadership positively and
significantly affected employee job satisfaction in an energy company. Srimata et
al. (2019) also found that school heads' digital leadership components significantly
influenced teachers' school climate and engagement, suggesting that teachers
experienced a degree of satisfaction in their job. Pasolong et al. (2021) explained
digital leadership's role in inspiring employees to innovate and defend their ideas,
making them feel satisfied in their jobs. The concept of Frederick Hertzberg's two-
factor theory (also called Motivator Hygiene Theory) also explains the value of
satisfaction in the workplace, particularly the role of leadership or management
in engendering employee satisfaction (Lee et al., 2022). Other related studies
described how employees' perceptions of digital leadership positively and
significantly affected their work behavior, giving them more favorable job
satisfaction and improved performance (Hamzah et al., 2021; Marbawi et al., 2022;
Muniroh et al., 2021). Altogether, the literature points to the idea that digital
leadership is a way of supporting employees, including teachers, to appreciate
what they have been doing.
The Philippines is already on its way to digitalizing its education practices and
operations. However, it needs substantial studies to help educational leaders craft
training initiatives that will hone the digital leadership of school heads. To the
researchers' knowledge, there is a gap in the literature that examines the level of
digital leadership among school heads in the country and its link to teachers' job
satisfaction. Hence, this study aimed to examine the digital leadership of school
heads as a predictor of the job satisfaction of teachers in the Philippines. The
objectives below guided the researchers to achieve the aim mentioned above.
1. Determine the level of digital leadership of school heads;
2. Ascertain the level of job satisfaction among teachers; and
3. Examine the digital leadership of school heads as a predictor of teachers' job
satisfaction.
2. Methodology
This study followed a descriptive-predictive design as the analysis of the variables
relevant to the aim of the study was carried out by employing descriptive and
predictive quantitative methods. The study specifically sought to describe school
heads' levels of digital leadership and job satisfaction among teachers.
Furthermore, it examined the digital leadership of school heads as a predictor of
teachers' job satisfaction. The data collection was done between March and May
2022, two years after COVID-19 had been declared a pandemic.

6
The respondents were the 520 public school teachers across the 16 regions of the
Philippines. They were selected based on convenience sampling, as this study
employed data collection via online platforms, making it difficult to control the
population parameters fully. However, this sampling method effectively achieved
the study's objectives, as it allowed for the widespread dissemination of the
questionnaire during the pandemic when direct contact and social interaction
were discouraged. Additionally, the use of the Internet has significantly increased,
making it easier to reach the respondents of this study. The computed sample size
using the Raosoft® software for the unknown population was 377 after calculating
the 95% confidence interval, a 50% response distribution rate, a 5% margin of
error, and 20,000 pre-set numbers for the unknown population. However, there
was a high turnover in the survey, which led the researchers to prefer 520
respondents as their sample size. Table 1 presents the distribution of respondents
from the country's different regions.
Table 1: Distribution of respondents by region
Demographic Variables
Number of
Respondents
Percent
Region I - Ilocos Region 29 5.58
Region II - Cagayan Valley 28 5.38
Region III - Central Luzon 26 5.00
Region IV-A – Calabarzon
ALABARZON
26 5.00
Region IV-B – Mimaropa
IMAROPA
30 5.77
Region V - Bicol Region 28 5.38
Region VI - Western Visayas 32 6.15
Region VII - Central Visayas 40 7.69
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 29 5.58
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 31 5.96
Region X - Northern Mindanao 34 6.54
Region XI - Davao Region 41 7.88
Region XII – Soccks
OCCSKSARGEN
31 5.96
Region XIII – Caraga
Administrative Region
33 6.35
Cordillera Administrative Region 40 7.69
National Capital Region 42 8.08
Total 520 100

7
On the other hand, Table 2 shows the demographic profiles of the respondents. In
terms of gender, the distribution of the respondents has a male population
comparable to its female counterpart. Moreover, most of them are between 25 to
35 years old, with a bachelor’s degree as their highest educational attainment, and
with at least five years of teaching experience.
Table 2: Demographic profiles of respondents
Demographic Variables Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 262 50.38
Female 258 49.62
Years of service
1 - 5 years 208 40.00
6 -10 years 210 40.38
10+ years and above 102 19.62
Highest Educational Attainment
Bachelor's degree 335 64.42
Master's degree 120 23.08
Doctoral degree 65 12.5
Age
25 - 35 years old 208 40.00
36 - 44 years old 151 29.04
45 - 54 years old 121 23.27
55- 64 years old 40 7.69
n = 520
The data-gathering procedure followed five phases: Phase 1: Identification of
questionnaires that measure the variables of the study; Phase 2: Validation of the
identified questionnaires guided by three education experts; Phase 3: Pilot testing
of questionnaires to determine their internal reliability consistency; Phase 4:
Implementing the questionnaires through an online survey in a Google Form
distributed via social media groups and institutional websites; and Phase 5:
Screening of gathered data. In Phase 1, the study used two questionnaires: the
ISTE standards for education leaders (ISTE, 2022) to measure school heads' levels
of digital leadership; and the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale of Pepe et al. (2017) to
measure teachers' level of job satisfaction. In Phase 2, the identified questionnaires
underwent a series of reviews by three education experts to ensure that each item
aligns with the intended concepts of the study's variables and the respondents'

8
context and culture. In Phase 3, the computation of the questionnaires' Cronbach's
alpha ratings commenced after the pilot testing. A total of 30 respondents, who
were public school teachers, were invited to participate in the pilot testing of the
questionnaires. The ISTE standards for education leaders' questionnaire achieved
a Cronbach's alpha rating of .87, and the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale had a
Cronbach's alpha rating of .86. Both ratings indicate high internal reliability
consistency. In Phase 4, the prospective respondents answered the questionnaires
distributed online via social media groups and institutional websites. Before
answering the questionnaire, the respondents had to read the essential ethical
protocols to which the study adhered, which include the purpose of the research,
informed consent, and respect for autonomy and confidentiality. The respondents
could choose whether to participate in the study or not. In Phase 5, screening of
the gathered data commenced by excluding incomplete surveys and those whose
responders were not legitimate, regular DepEd teachers. The responses were kept
private in a computer file that could only be unlocked using a password.
The SPSS software version 26 (SPSS 26.0 IBM Corporation, Armonk, New York,
USA) analyzed the data, particularly the descriptive statistics and the regression
analysis. The p < .05 was considered statistically significant.
3. Results
The findings in Table 3 showed that teachers have a satisfactory level of
perception regarding the digital leadership of their school heads. Accordingly, all
the five areas of digital leadership, such as Equity and Citizenship Advocate,
Visionary Planner, Empowering Leader, Systems Designer, and Connected
Learner, received a satisfactory rating.
Table 3: Teachers’ level of perception of their school heads’ digital leadership
Digital Leadership of School Heads Min. Max. Mean SD
Equity and Citizenship 1.25 4.00 3.506 0.436
Visionary Planner 1.60 4.00 3.332 0.420
Empowering Leader 1.40 4.00 3.482 0.443
Systems Designer 1.06 4.00 3.266 0.614
Connected Learner 1.00 4.00 3.486 0.437
Total Mean Score 3.41 = Satisfactory
Note: n = 520. Confidence interval; 3.51 – 4.00: Very satisfactory, 2.51 – 3.50:
Satisfactory, 1.51 – 2.50: Unsatisfactory, and 1.00 – 1.50: Very unsatisfactory
On the other hand, the findings in Table 4 showed that teachers have a satisfactory
level of job satisfaction, with satisfaction with co-workers having the highest mean
score (M = 3.775, SD = 0.378) and satisfaction with parents having the lowest mean
score (M = 3.075, SD = 0.566).

9
Table 4: Teachers’ level of perception of their school heads’ digital leadership
Job Satisfaction of Teachers Min. Max. Mean SD
Satisfaction with Co-workers 2.00 4.00 3.775 0.378
Satisfaction with Students' Behaviors 2.00 4.00 3.627 0.484
Satisfaction with Parents 1.00 4.00 3.075 0.566
Total Mean Score 3.49: Satisfactory
Note: n = 520. Confidence interval; 3.51 – 4.00: Very satisfactory, 2.51 – 3.50:
Satisfactory, 1.51 – 2.50: Unsatisfactory, and 1.00 – 1.50: Very unsatisfactory
Finally, as shown in Table 5, the regression analysis is statistically significant on
the grounds that the F-ratio = 47.601, R2 = 0.562, ΔR2 = 0.316, p < 0.05.
Additionally, the value of R2 is 0.562, demonstrating that this model accounts for
56% of the variance of teachers’ job satisfaction. The regression analysis displayed
that all five areas of digital leadership were found to be predictors and have a
substantial positive influence on teachers’ job satisfaction. Among these
predictors, Systems Designer (SD) (β = 0.243, B = 0.140, SE = 0.026, CI = 0.089 –
0.191, t-value = 5.398, p < 0.05) was indicated as the strongest predictor, followed
by Equity and Citizenship Advocate (ECA) (β = 0.132, B = 0.108, SE = 0.038, CI =
0.032 – 0.183, t-value = 2.798, p < 0.05), Connected Learner (CL) (β = 0.128, B =
0.103, SE = 0.040, CI = 0.025 – 0.182, t-value = 2.601, p < 0.05), Visionary Planner
(VP) (β = 0.125, B = 0.106, SE = 0.040, CI = 0.027 – 0.184, t-value = 2.655, p < 0.05),
and Empowering Leader (EL) (β = .103, B = 0.082, SE = 0.037, CI = 0.010 – 0.155, t-
value = 2.223, p < 0.05) respectively.
Table 5: Regression analysis indicating the role of school heads’ digital leadership in
predicting teachers’ job satisfaction
Model
Unstandar
dized
Coefficients
Max.
Standar
dized
Coefficie
nts T Sig
95%
Confidence
Interval for B
𝑹𝟐
∆𝑹𝟐 F Sig.
B SE Β Lower Upper
(Consta
nt)
1.658 .131 .132
12.645 0.000
1.401 1.916
0.562 0.316 47.601 0.000
ECA .108 .038 .125 2.798 0.005 .032 .183
VP .106 .040 .103 2.655 0.008 .027 .184
EL .082 .037 .243 2.223 0.027 .010 .155
SD .140 .026 .128 5.398 0.000 .089 .191
CL .103 .040 .132 2.601 0.010 .025 .182
Note: n = 520. ECA – Equity and Citizenship Advocate; VP – Visionary Planner;
EL – Empowering Leader; SD – Systems Designer; and CL – Connected Learner

10
4. Discussion
An analysis of the survey showed the digital leadership of school heads and
teachers' job satisfaction during the pandemic. It also showed the regression
analysis, which examined the school heads' digital leadership as a predictor of
teachers' job satisfaction.
4.1 Digital Leadership of School Heads
The findings in Table 3 indicated that teachers have a satisfactory level of
perception about the digital leadership of their school heads. Accordingly, all five
digital leadership areas have a satisfactory rating. This finding suggests that
school heads in the Philippines can, at least to a satisfactory level, guide their
schools and stakeholders toward digital transformation to remain adaptable and
competitive in a rapidly changing digital and social media landscape. Since the
start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the digitalization of the education sector has
become indispensable with the rapid adoption of digital and distant work setups
(Tanucan et al., 2021; Tanucan & Uytico, 2021). School heads in this situation have
had to fill in whatever knowledge and skill gaps they may have to be better
equipped to achieve digital growth in schools (Aksal, 2015). They also have taken
on the mantle of a more technologically inclined leadership to help teachers and
stakeholders utilize digital tools and other technological platforms (Karakose et
al., 2021). Furthermore, they served as digital leaders to their subordinates,
providing the necessary skills and knowledge for a 21st-century education to
harness digital transformations in schools (Veguilla-Martinez et al., 2022).
However, having a sufficient level of digital leadership would need more
enhancement, particularly in light of the numerous obstacles that prevent the
country from fully utilizing and integrating technology in education.
The study by Dotong et al. (2016) identified insufficient financial and
infrastructure support, human capital, management support, and behavioral and
environmental factors as barriers to using and integrating technology in
education. Tanucan et al. (2021) also identified that age is a significant factor for
teachers’ conducting remote digital teaching. Hence, there is a need for substantial
training for senior teachers who are not technologically inclined or adept. The
Philippines' inadequate digital infrastructure, outdated technology, and slow
Internet connectivity were also significant issues (Salac & Kim, 2016; World Bank,
2020). The traditional mindset of school principals also hampers the full
integration of technology in schools as they tend to devalue the role of ICT in
education, leading to a lack of technical staff for maintaining computers and
computer networks, as well as user support for Internet-related activities
(UNESCO-UIS, 2014).
In light of these convoluted concerns, training programs that aim to improve
school heads' digital leadership are justified. The problem is that the country's
programs to capacitate or improve school leaders, particularly in their digital
leadership vis-à-vis identified standards such as the ISTE standards for education
leaders, have not been deliberately emphasized. The recent study by Arinto et al.
(2020) made the same recommendation, emphasizing the need for school leaders
in the country to take the lead in setting expectations for technology use and

11
supporting rapid-cycle evaluation of technology benefits following a set of
standards determined by the national office of education. Failure to do so may
adversely impact teachers' job satisfaction, the significant rise in stress and
burnout (Zhai & Du, 2020), and the digital divide in the academic community
(Talandron-Felipe, 2020). Nevertheless, helping school heads strengthen their
digital leadership would open up new prospects and opportunities in the
education sector while also providing solutions to existing and emerging issues
when harnessing digital transformation in schools (Karakose et al., 2021).
4.2 Job Satisfaction of Teachers
The findings in Table 4 showed that teachers have a satisfactory level of job
satisfaction, with satisfaction with co-workers having the highest score rating and
satisfaction with parents having the lowest score rating. This finding implies that
teachers in the Philippines are coping and adapting steadily to the new work and
education despite the plethora of challenges and changes. Many reasons could
contribute to the teachers' satisfaction. One could be the sense of networking and
support they receive from their co-workers, as indicated in the findings.
Numerous studies have stressed the value of having support from co-workers to
combat feelings of isolation, mainly when working remotely (Mulki & Jaramillo,
2011). Sewell and Taskin (2015) also added that regular team communication was
necessary to minimize any possible drawbacks of working remotely. In the
Philippines, many public school teachers started physically reporting to school
after a year of the pandemic, enabling them to work together and socialize.
Another reason could be the various interventions and innovations to address the
challenges of the pandemic and to capacitate teachers in using and integrating the
necessary technologies and other tools for digital communication in their daily
activities. The diverse in-service training provided to the teachers on topics such
as capability-building training, use of technology, and student counseling was
vital to respond to the academic challenges and meet several demands, including
the socio-emotional demands of students and teachers alike (Darling-Hammond
& Hyler, 2020; Tanucan & Uytico, 2021). The flexible learning options
implemented by DepEd and CHED have also been relevant to continuing the
education services of schools and universities while considering the health and
safety of teachers, students, and other stakeholders (CHED, 2020; DepEd, 2020).
This flexibility in education also considers each student's unique demands,
learning preferences, rate of progress, and technology in education, thereby
helping the teachers in the process. Moreover, the pandemic relief measures of the
Philippine government such as the Bayanihan to Recover as One Act (Bayanihan 2)
contributed the lion's share of the money for educational initiatives in the public
education sector, freeing up additional funds for the purchase of necessary
instructional materials and the construction of pertinent infrastructure. Assistance
was also given to teachers and students during the epidemic under the provisions
of the Act mentioned above. Notably, the coming together of concerned agencies
and individuals, whether from the government or private sector, has been
instrumental in the survival of many Filipinos (Canete et al., 2021) and the
continuation of education amid and beyond the pandemic (Dayagbil et al., 2021).

12
Nevertheless, much work must be done for the country's education system to
remain relevant, flexible, and resilient. A strong parent or stakeholder partnership
with schools is crucial to this endeavor. As previously mentioned, this study's
finding indicated a lower level of teachers' job satisfaction with parents compared
to other job satisfaction constructs. This finding indicates that issues around
parent-teacher or parent-school partnerships exist. According to De Dios (2022),
Filipino parents seldom offer support or direction to their children in the remote
learning environment because of their low educational background, limited
subject knowledge, and low self-confidence in the teaching the learning process.
Several technological and Internet-related constraints and difficulty in managing
the work-home balance were also the common problems for parents (Palos-
Simbre, 2021). Further, the lack of preparedness of parents for home-based
learning is also a significant obstacle. In other countries, parental involvement in
remote learning, including interventions to enhance parent-teacher
communication, was necessary for the success of remote learning (Chen & Rivera-
Vernazza, 2022; Knopik et al., 2021; Ricker et al., 2021). This shift in education
from traditional teaching methods is a complex process that requires mutual
communication and cooperation among various stakeholders, including parents
(Tocalo, 2022). Hence, including parents' experiences and perspectives in
decision-making, particularly in digitalizing education, is essential.
4.3 School heads’ digital leadership as a predictor of teachers’ job satisfaction
The findings in Table 5 show that each area of the school heads' digital leadership
significantly predicted teachers' job satisfaction. This finding demonstrates how
school heads' ability to guide their schools and stakeholders toward digital
transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a digital and social media
landscape could influence teachers' job satisfaction. This finding concurs with the
study of Matriadi et al. (2021), which demonstrated how digital leadership
positively and significantly influenced employee job satisfaction in an energy
company. Likewise, it also conforms to the study of Srimata et al. (2019), which
described how school heads' digital leadership components significantly
influenced teachers' school climate and engagement, suggesting that teachers
experienced a degree of satisfaction in their job. It also corroborates the finding of
Pasolong et al. (2021), which explained the role of digital leadership in inspiring
employees to innovate and defend their ideas, making them feel satisfied in their
job. The finding also supports the concept of Frederick Hertzberg's two-factor
theory, which explains the value of satisfaction in the workplace, particularly the
role of leadership or management in spurring employee satisfaction (Lee et al.,
2022). Finally, this study also corroborates related studies that describe how
employees' perceptions of digital leadership positively and significantly affect
their work behavior, giving them more favorable job satisfaction and improved
performance (Hamzah et al., 2021; Marbawi et al., 2022; Muniroh et al., 2021).
Teachers' job satisfaction should be highlighted in decision-making as it plays a
crucial role that can affect the completion of various curricula regardless of the
learning platform (Li & Yu, 2022). It is also crucial for students' overall learning
(Devi & Soni, 2013) and schools' attainment of their objectives and overall growth

13
(Jun, 2015; Sahito & Vaisanen, 2020). School heads in this situation should harness
their digital leadership skills to satisfy their teachers at work, especially since
educational activities, including administrative functions, involve technology for
more efficient and effective operations.
Creating a digital culture needs digital resources that will move towards its
successful implementation (Pendry & Salvatore, 2015). Such resources include the
leaders who have exhibited qualities of digital leadership. School stakeholders
could hardly imbibe a culture of innovation and collaboration without the
necessary digital infrastructure and school leaders with the knowledge and skills
to use and model technology use and integration. With the rapid move to remote
work, organizations must facilitate simplified communication channels between
geographically dispersed teams, often in different time zones (Waldron, 2021).
The Philippines, being an archipelagic country, will ultimately benefit from
having a pool of leaders with digital leadership skills. Moreover, the country is
already on its way to digitalizing its education practices and operations by
adopting e-learning, distance learning, and other alternative methods of delivery
(CHED, 2020; DepEd, 2020). Likewise, the country is beginning to digitalize its
educational practices with the launch of numerous initiatives such as DepEd
Commons, DepEd TV, DepEd Radio, DepEd Learning Management System, and
DepEd Mobile App, among others (Ponti, 2021; Hernando-Malipot, 2021). These
initiatives have been instrumental in supplementing the modular learning
adopted by public schools to enhance student learning in various subject areas
during the pandemic (Cho et al., 2021; Potane, 2022). Moreover, the country's
education is starting to focus on using ICT through the Digital Rise Program,
which equips classrooms, teachers, and students with online learning resources
(Llego, 2020). Furthermore, Filipinos are among the world's most active Internet
and social media users (Baclig, 2022), which is a vital component in the digital
transformation of education.
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
The study revealed that Filipino school heads have a satisfactory level of digital
leadership as perceived by their teachers. This finding suggests that school heads
can, at least to a satisfactory level, guide their schools and stakeholders toward
digital transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a rapidly changing
digital and social media landscape. Furthermore, Filipino teachers have
satisfactory job satisfaction during the pandemic, which suggests that they are
coping and adapting steadily to the new work and education despite the plethora
of challenges and changes. Finally, this study reveals that school heads' digital
leadership predicts teachers' job satisfaction. When leaders are competent to lead
and model in the digital age, their subordinates will become more satisfied with
their work. Therefore, training programs for improving school heads' digital
leadership are necessary to enhance their teachers' job satisfaction, especially since
technology plays a significant part in diverse educational activities. For future
research, examining the socio-demographic profiles of school heads and teachers
as a predictor of digital leadership may also substantiate the study's findings.

14
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©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 19-49, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.2
Received May 31, 2022; Revised Oct 14, 2022; Accepted Oct 19, 2022
Unpacking Determinants of Middle-School
Children’s Direct Nature Experiences (DNEs):
An Island Perspective
Faruhana Abdullah
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Maldives National University, Republic of Maldives
Nor Asniza Ishak*
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Mohammad Zohir Ahmad
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
Abstract. This study aimed to explore and understand the contextual
factors that influence nature experiences amongst 11–12–year–old
children in their local island environments of the Maldives. The study
adopted a qualitative phenomenological approach using semi-structured
focus group interviews, held online, with seven groups, one per island
environment. A total of 34 children participated in the interviews, with 4–
6 children per group, recruited purposively based on inclusion criteria.
The interviews were transcribed, and a thematic analysis was carried out.
The analysis demonstrated that children’s nature experiences were
primarily influenced by preferences, opportunities, constraints, and
freedom, of which opportunities have the greatest influence. Similarly,
constraints deter the use of available opportunities, regardless of where
children live. Females appear to have more constraints on their nature
experiences than males. Children must be facilitated with meaningful
opportunities for DNEs to overcome constraints and motivate nature
engagement. Schools must play a proactive role in facilitating these
experiences to foster nature connections to ensure the success of their
sustainability targeted curricular objectives. While the subject of DNEs
has a wide place in the literature, the lack of studies in the field of
education for sustainable development (ESD) increases the importance of
this study. The findings can guide the promotion of ESD as a pathway to
a sustainable future in the country. Future research should examine
barriers to children’s DNEs at the school level.
Keywords: children; contextual factors; direct nature experiences; island
environments; Maldives
*
Corresponding author: Nor Asniza Ishak, asnizaishak@usm.my

20
1. Introduction
A deficit of direct nature experiences (DNEs) and its consequences is the subject
of current scholarly concern. DNEs, which involve direct contact or physical,
multisensory engagements with natural elements (Beery & Lekies, 2021; Gaston
& Soga, 2020) in childhood, are especially pivotal for establishing lasting human-
nature relationships that underpin several of the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Thus, efforts towards attaining sustainability must
also focus on reconnecting people with nature (Charles et al., 2018; Ives et al.,
2018). In particular, Goal 4 of the SDGs stipulates the necessity of inclusive and
quality education for all and the promotion of lifelong learning; Goal 4.7 targets
promoting sustainable development (SD) through education for sustainable
development (ESD). Thus, “this education and lifelong learning must necessarily
be connected to the living earth” (Charles et al., 2018, p. 41).
ESD embraces a transformative approach to teaching and learning that strives to
equip learners with the competencies necessary for lifelong sustainable
behaviours. Thus, schools in many countries – including Germany, Macau, the
United States (Müller et al., 2021), Sweden and Japan (Fredriksson et al., 2020) –
are embracing this approach to education. Promoting ESD is especially crucial for
small island states such as the Maldives, which are the most vulnerable to the
accelerating climate change crisis. In the Maldives, the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF) provides a comprehensive framework for promoting ESD
through its key competencies, learning areas, and pedagogical approaches (Di
Biase et al., 2021). Particularly relevant to this study is its key competency, Using
Sustainable Practices, which aims “to raise awareness to engage in sustainable
practices and learn conservation for the future” (National Institute of Education
[NIE], 2014, p. 19). It is envisaged that through this key competency, learners will
acquire the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes necessary for taking care of
their environment and will be motivated to become future stewards of the natural
world. Meanwhile, scholars strongly recommend the improved application of
learner-centered approaches as a basis for transitioning towards ESD in the
Maldives (Di Biase et al., 2021). However, successful ESD also requires revising
educational curricula with a view to increasing nature experiences to redress
waning human-nature relationships (Ives et al., 2018; Selby, 2017). Yet,
environmental education in the Maldives lacks experiential learning and a sense
of place related to children’s local natural environment (N. Mohamed &
Mohamed, 2021).
Historically, rich everyday experiences with abundant natural surroundings have
enabled Maldivian children to learn and connect with nature in a myriad of ways.
This contextualized, experiential learning laid the groundwork for sustainable
practices in the country. In contrast, disturbing trends towards a reduction in
DNEs among children are emerging. For example, children learn about nature
and its values primarily through schoolbooks that emphasize global knowledge
(M. Mohamed, 2012). Generations of children are becoming separated from their
traditional island lives, subsequently reducing their nature interactions. Observed
unsustainable practices, including abuses of nature by today’s youth (M.
Mohamed et al., 2019), suggest a progressive state of decline. Importantly, the
frequency of children’s DNEs has been found to differ significantly based on

21
where they live, with children outside the capital city tending to experience nature
more frequently (Abdullah et al., 2022a). While such trends have been attributed
to factors such as migration to the capital for better childhood education (M.
Mohamed, 2015; M. Mohamed et al., 2019) and differences in available
opportunities (Abdullah et al., 2022a), the true determinants of DNEs among
Maldivian children remain uncertain. Thus, this study aimed to explore and
understand the contextual factors that influence nature experiences amongst 11–
12–year-old Maldivian children in their local island environments.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Worrying Trends in DNEs among Children
Regular DNEs, particularly with children’s daily environments, can establish
baselines of nature conceptions. A lack of positive DNEs or continuous exposure
to nature destruction can cause negative shifts in the baselines of accepted nature
norms, such as increased tolerance to environmental degradation that can worsen
over time or with each generation (Papworth et al., 2009; Soga & Gaston, 2018).
Thus, the progressive decline in human-nature interactions, or an extinction of
experience in many countries, is deeply concerning (Colléony et al., 2020; Gaston &
Soga, 2020; Soga & Gaston, 2016). Evidence supporting a decline in DNEs among
children includes a reduction in time spent outdoors (Larson et al., 2018; Skar et
al., 2016; Soga & Gaston, 2016), less free play in and use of nearby nature places
(Gundersen et al., 2016) and reduced frequency of DNEs (Soga et al., 2018; Zhang
et al., 2014). While this change is not always evident (Muslim et al., 2017), trends
in nature experiences often depend on where children live. For instance, children
in less urban areas tend to engage in more frequent DNEs than those in urban
areas (Abdullah et al., 2022a; Muslim et al., 2019; Soga et al., 2018; Zhang et al.,
2014). Furthermore, perceived negative trends may be related to the types of
experiences rather than their frequency (Larson et al., 2018; Novotný et al., 2021).
Concurrent with these debates are calls to increase childhood DNEs as a means to
tackle the widening disconnect between people and nature and to ameliorate the
ensuing negative effects (Charles et al., 2018). In order to do so meaningfully, it is
first necessary to understand what factors influence children’s DNEs.
2.2 Determinants of DNEs among Children
The main determinants of children’s DNEs are sometimes broadly categorized as
opportunities or orientations (Soga et al., 2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016). Opportunities
constitute possibilities for interactions with nature in terms of time and space
(Soga et al., 2018) that tend to decline with urbanization (Imai et al., 2018; Muslim
et al., 2019; Mustapa et al., 2018; Soga et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2014). Urbanization-
imposed barriers to DNEs include a loss of access to nature due to a depletion of
wildlife (Kai et al., 2014), increased distance to nature spaces (Colléony et al., 2020;
Soga & Gaston, 2016), logistics of city design and spatial barriers (Kellert et al.,
2017). Although cities can typically present more barriers to DNEs (Freeman et al.,
2018), some may nevertheless offer ample opportunities for DNEs (Almeida et al.,
2018; Charles et al., 2018; Freeman et al., 2018). Such findings demand serious
consideration, given the long-term impacts of DNEs on learning and future global
conservation (Kellert et al., 2017). In fact, the latter may increasingly depend on
city dwellers’ connections with nature through interactions with urban species

22
found within city limits, a concept coined as the “Pigeon Paradox” (Dunn et al.,
2006 p. 1814).
Opportunities for children to experience nature are often hindered by the
restrictions of everyday life, regardless of their natural surroundings. In this
regard, parental involvement poses a primary deterrent to children’s DNEs by
restricting children’s autonomy of movement ranges, destinations, time spent
outdoors, and personal lifestyle (Freeman et al., 2018; Hand et al., 2018) as well as
close supervision (Larson et al., 2011). These constraints may be related to traffic
and safety concerns (Skar et al., 2016), socio-cultural values (Evans et al., 2018;
Freeman et al., 2018, 2021; Soga et al., 2018) or both. Contrasting findings suggest
contextual differences in restraints. For instance, time pressure due to organized
activities and increased homework presents major barriers for Norwegian
children’s DNEs (Skar et al., 2016), but not for Japanese children (Soga et al., 2018).
Orientations involve feelings or emotions (Soga & Gaston, 2016) that can dictate
how opportunities are utilized (Hand et al., 2018; Larson et al., 2018; Soga et al.,
2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016). A decline in DNEs among children is sometimes
driven by a loss of orientation towards engaging with nature, rather than a loss of
opportunities. A loss of orientation reflects a disconnect with nature that decreases
motivation (Soga et al., 2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016) or biophilia that discourages
engagement with biodiverse spaces (Hand et al., 2017). Notably, the latter view
has been contested (Fattorini et al., 2017).
The loss of orientation is often associated with manifestations of modernization,
particularly increasingly sedentary lifestyles (Kellert et al., 2017) and substitution
of DNEs with digitally-mediated engagements (Ballouard et al., 2011; Kellert et
al., 2017). Sometimes, children prefer to engage in screen-based activities (Larson
et al., 2018) or sports (Mustapa et al., 2018) rather than DNEs, even while outdoors.
Nonetheless, children’s use of screen-based media is not always negatively
associated with the extent of their DNEs (Soga et al., 2018). Other studies not only
support a greater inclination towards indirect and vicarious nature experiences
but also show that such experiences contribute more to children’s connectedness
to nature (CTN) than DNEs (Mustapa et al., 2019). Additionally, family members’
attitudes, gender differences (Soga et al., 2018), and fear for personal safety,
danger, and crime (Adams & Savahl, 2015) can influence children’s orientations
towards nature.
Undoubtedly, several contextual factors either impede or promote children’s
DNEs. Identifying barriers is important as they often have deep-seated origins in
children’s daily lives that marginalize DNEs and may be difficult to break down
once they are established (Moss, 2012). However, to mitigate the reduction of
nature experiences, it is also imperative to identify drivers that motivate children
to engage with nature (Soga et al., 2018). In particular, culturally-rooted
transformations must be identified in order to optimize nature connections
(Novotný et al., 2021).
Unpacking the determinants of DNEs is particularly crucial in the Maldives for
several reasons. Limited studies suggest emerging negative trends in DNEs and

23
relationships with nature among Maldivians, entwined with transitioning from
rural to urban areas and modern lifestyles that conflict with the intrinsic culture
of the Maldives (M. Mohamed, 2012, 2015; M. Mohamed et al., 2019).
Subsequently, the perceived value of nature is changing from sustainable
resources to extractive uses or recreation (M. Mohamed, 2015). Unlike in the past,
current nature interactions take a more formal route based on the NCF, aimed at
inculcating robust pro-conservation competencies from childhood as a step
towards attaining SD (NIE, 2014). However, engaging children in stimulating
DNEs in formal, non-formal, or informal contexts can be particularly challenging
considering the ever-increasing congestion, societal issues, and human-altered
environments prevalent on most islands. As already noted, environmental studies
in the Maldives lack direct, contextual experiential learning from local nature,
which is critical for building children’s nature connections, knowledge, and
values associated with local environments (M. Mohamed, 2012; N. Mohamed &
Mohamed, 2021). Indeed, children’s DNEs have significant direct effects on their
biodiversity knowledge and attitudes, which influence their willingness to
conserve biodiversity. These effects can have implications for future biodiversity
conservation (Abdullah et al., 2022b). Therefore, identifying the determinants of
DNEs among Maldivian children is urgently needed to facilitate impactful DNEs,
to bring about effective changes to current practices in an educational context, as
well as to harness other benefits of these experiences. This study adds new
knowledge to the understudied area of children’s DNEs in the context of small
islands, especially the Maldives, which face multiple challenges to SD. In
particular, while the subject of DNEs has a wide place in the literature and is an
essential requisite for SD and ESD (Charles et al., 2018; Ives et al., 2018; Selby,
2017), the lack of literature from the perspective of children following a
curriculum structured around ESD, as in the Maldives, increases the importance
of this study. This study identified contextual determinants of DNEs among
Maldivian children that are not well documented in literature. This information
can contribute to enabling DNEs in nature spaces within everyday use areas
through pedagogical shifts and informal means to foster strong connections with
nature to achieve the sustainability-targeted goals of the Maldivian NCF as well
as long-term SD.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
This study, being part of an in-depth study of children’s DNEs in the Maldives, is
primarily supported by the modified Experiential Learning Theory (Morris, 2019)
and the model of modes of nature experiences and learning in childhood
development (Kellert, 2005), both of which emphasize the importance of contexts
of experiences in learning and outcomes. In this framework, the island
environments where children reside provide the contexts of experiences and are
expected to determine how children experience nature. The emphasis on
contextually rich experiences is further supported by the philosophy of place-
based education. Advocates of this philosophy recommend that place-based
education should form the basis of environmental education, in which children
are immersed in personal, real-world experiences of the local environment to
enable them to truly understand, connect, and engage with local environmental
problems for a sustainable future (Di Biase et al., 2021; N. Mohamed & Mohamed,
2021; Ontong & Grange, 2014).

24
3. Methodology
This study employed a qualitative phenomenological approach to explore and
understand the contextual factors that influence children’s nature experiences
among middle-school children in their local islands of the Maldives. Children’s
nature experiences are often influenced by their natural surroundings and
personal circumstances and are subject to personal interpretation (Adams &
Savahl, 2015; Freeman et al., 2018). To examine such phenomena, authors
recommend using qualitative, open-ended approaches to data collection and
analysis (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This study used focus
group interviews (FGIs) to gather data. FGIs involve a series of carefully planned
open-ended, face-to-face interviews with a selected group of participants, aimed
at eliciting personal views and opinions on the chosen topic (Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2018; Krueger & Casey, 2015) and gathering a large amount of rich data
within a limited time frame (Krueger & Casey, 2015).
3.1 Study Locations
This study was conducted on seven islands in the Maldives. Each island
represents a different island environment (IE) type. The Maldives was chosen for
this study, considering the lack of experiential learning of nature among
Maldivian schoolchildren (N. Mohamed & Mohamed, 2021) and the significance
of these experiences for successful ESD and SD. The island types were based on a
combination of local natural spaces, island area, population density, and
developmental criteria. The codes for the islands, their names, and their locations
are shown in Figure 1. The codes are in order of decreasing population density
and increasing natural spaces. Each island was expected to present specific
contextual factors that influence children’s regular nature experiences.
Note: IE- Island Environment or Island types
Figure 1. The Study Sites in the Maldives

25
3.2 Participants and Sampling
The sample for this study consisted of 34 children (15 males; 19 females), aged 11–
12 years, from public schools in the seven IEs. Public schools were chosen to
ensure a common national curriculum and minimize the effects of pedagogical
differences.
Middle childhood (6–12) years are particularly suitable for studying DNEs
because children of this age are the most responsive to nature experiences. They
can interact with nature in multiple ways and levels that enhance positive
outcomes (Little & Derr, 2018). Furthermore, responses increase from 7–10 years,
peak at around 10 years, level off from 10–14 years and then decline (Otto et al.,
2019). The age range of 11–12 years was chosen due to the assumption that
children at the higher end of middle childhood would have greater independence
to enjoy some unsupervised nature experiences. This is an important factor that
influences positive outcomes (Freeman et al., 2018; Hand et al., 2018). Also, they
may communicate more comprehensively than younger children.
According to the literature, the recommended number of participants for focus
group interviews (FGIs) varies from 4 to 12, depending on the study. Authors
recommend including 6 – 8 (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018) or 5 – 8 (Krueger &
Casey, 2015) participants per group. However, the purpose and nature of the
study determines the sample size and type in qualitative research, rather than the
numbers. Furthermore, since the aim of FGIs is to understand and gain insights
regarding a situation rather than making generalizations, group composition is
also often determined by the nature of the study. In this study, each focus group
consisted of 4–6 children chosen purposively from one school on each island,
based on inclusion criteria. The sample was homogenous in terms of age, fulfilling
the most important inclusion criteria for children in FGIs (Krueger & Casey, 2015).
Other inclusion criteria included knowledge, cognition, and communication
levels (Gibson, 2007). These criteria were explained to the appropriate teachers in
the schools, who screened and selected the participants.
3.3 Data Collection Tool
Data for this study was gathered using semi-structured focus group interviews.
The interview guide (see Appendix 1) consisted of seven key questions, which
were mainly open-ended, aimed collectively and primarily to elicit subjective
information on the contextual factors that influence children’s nature experiences
on their island. One question used photographs of local nature places that
children may encounter. The questions focused on what the children most
commonly like to do with their time; favourite living things; favourite places to
visit; surrounding nature places; what children do while in natural places; best
things about natural places; and visits to specific places. Follow-up questions and
probes were also used for clarification and detail.
3.4 Reliability and Validity
Validity and reliability in qualitative research center around trustworthiness, or
the confidence of readers in the findings of the study. The most widely used
criteria to assure trustworthiness are credibility, transferability, dependability,
and confirmability, which were introduced by Lincoln and Guba in 1985. Each of

26
these criteria may be met using several strategies, which may overlap (Korstjens
& Moser, 2018; Nowell et al., 2017). Credibility ensures the accuracy of findings
(Korstjens & Moser, 2018). To this end, Leung (2015) recommends determining
the suitability of the tools, processes, and data. Hence, prior to the interviews, the
content validity of the interview guide was established by two independent
experts who assessed the appropriateness of the questions for the targeted
objectives. A pilot study was run to determine the suitability of the questions for
children of this age and assess time requirements. This also gave insights into the
researcher’s limitations as an interviewer and helped to ensure better engagement
during the data collection. The interview transcripts were read repeatedly to
become immersed in the data, thereby enhancing the credibility (see Korstjens &
Moser, 2018).
To ensure transferability, or its application in other contexts, rich, contextual
descriptions of data and details of the study can be provided (Korstjens & Moser,
2018), as in this study. Dependability, which is closely linked to credibility,
includes aspects of consistency or reliability. Dependability can be ensured
through clear, logical documentation, while confirmability can be ascertained by
establishing credibility, transferability, and dependability (Nowell et al., 2017). To
enhance reliability, deviant cases were included (see Leung, 2015), and the data,
process of data analysis, and product were rigorously verified for appropriateness
and accuracy through constant comparison. To ensure trustworthiness, an audit
trail of the coding process, including the derivation of themes and interpretation,
was maintained along with definitions and exemplars (see Leung, 2015; Nowell
et al., 2017). The quality of this process was further confirmed by two independent
experts in the field. Because the data analysis was guided by Braun and Clarke’s
(2013) thematic analysis framework, the experts used a checklist of 15 criteria,
compiled by the same authors in this external audit.
3.5 Research Procedure
This study was approved by the ethics committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Permissions were also obtained from the Ministry of Education, schools,
participants, and parents in the Maldives. Verbal assent was obtained from the
children to record video of the interviews.
Although face-to-face interviews were preferred, the interviews for this study
were conducted online using Google Meet, due to the restrictions of the COVID-
19 pandemic. The platform and meeting time were chosen by the responsible
teacher in each school. One FGI was held per IE, with four to six children in each
group. All interviews were conducted by the first author, using the interview
guide prepared (see Appendix 1) and following a protocol based on the guidelines
for FGIs by Krueger (2002). In summary, this protocol included introductions;
explaining objectives; establishing ground rules; providing instructions; and
discussions based on the interview questions as well as ensuring that all
participants were engaged in the discussions. The interview guide questions
helped to create a more focused pathway for exploring the topic. Questions were
rephrased and repeated as required, and probes were used where necessary to
maintain a continuous flow of conversation. Most children communicated well
and freely expressed their thoughts, although a few showed some hesitancy,

27
possibly because the interviews were online and were being recorded. Children
were made to feel as comfortable as possible and were assured of confidentiality
being maintained. The responsible teacher was available throughout the
interviews to ensure the safety of the children and to address any issues that arose.
The interviews were conducted in English, as preferred by the children, although
they were free to speak in their first language. Video recordings of the interviews
were made, and notes were written. There were limitations to visual observations
because some children were shy and preferred to keep their video switched off.
Every effort was made to involve all participants in the discussion. Each interview
lasted approximately 45 minutes. Interviews were stopped when no new
information was being generated (i.e., saturation was reached), as recommended
(Krueger & Casey, 2015).
3.6 Data Analysis
The focus group interview data was analysed based on the six-step framework of
Braun and Clarke (2013). This framework is particularly suitable for thematic
analysis due to its clarity and flexibility. The analytical steps included (i)
transcribing, reading, and familiarizing the data; (ii) generating initial codes; (iii)
identifying patterns (themes); (iv) reviewing and refining themes; (v) defining and
naming themes; and (vi) writing the final analysis. The process applied is
summarized in Figure 2.
Figure 2. A Summary of the Thematic Analysis Process Used in the Study
Note: The figure is adapted from Ghasemy (2019).
For the thematic analysis, the interview recordings were first transcribed verbatim
into word files by listening to the recordings and checking repeatedly against the
recordings to ensure accuracy. The transcripts were imported to Atlas.ti 9 for
analysis, including coding, generating themes, maintaining notes, and creating
network diagrams. A network diagram created using Atlas.ti 9 is shown in
Appendix 3. This visual map enhanced understanding of the relationships among
all codes, subthemes, and themes.
The data set was comprised of seven transcripts, one per island. Each transcript
was read repeatedly for familiarization with the data corpus as well as to identify
points of interest and generate initial codes. The coding process, for the most part,
was researcher derived, in that there were no pre-set codes and it focused on
identifying and understanding contextual factors that drive children’s nature
experiences based on meanings of data. Since a few codes were also identified

28
from the data itself based on their explicit meaning, the analysis was also partly
data-driven (see Braun & Clarke, 2013).
Following initial coding, codes that represented similar concepts were collapsed.
After meticulous comparison of codes against the transcripts, revisions, and
refinements, some codes were combined into broader subthemes based on the
similarity of their underlying concepts. Similar subthemes were collapsed into
themes. Each subtheme captured a specific aspect of the central organizing
concept of a common theme. Upon confirming themes, names were finalized and
defined to specify the focus and boundaries of the theme (see Braun & Clarke,
2013). To illustrate this process, the sources of the codes and the ways in which
they were merged into subthemes for the theme, opportunities, are shown in Figure
3. This process was utilized to derive all the factors. Details of codes, definitions,
and related information were maintained in a Microsoft Excel 2010 matrix for ease
of sorting and cross-checking, as well as to maintain a transparent and
comprehensive trail to ensure consistency in the analysis process. The theme
derivation process and analysis were constantly verified through constant
comparison and finally vetted by independent experts to ensure trustworthiness.
A summary of the analysis with examples of quotes is presented in Appendix 2.
Figure 3. The Sequence of Deriving Themes

29
4. Findings
The demographic profile of the participants and Island Environment (IE) Codes
are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic Profile of Participants
Island
Environment (IE)
Code
for IE
Island Name
No in school
chosen
Gender No of
children
Boys Girls
IEs of Male’ (Capital City)
IE1 ML Male’ 187 3 1 4
IE2 VM Villimale 66 3 2 5
IE3 HM Hulhumale 147 1 4 5
IEs outside Male’ (Capital City)
IE4 KF Kulhudhuffushi 74 1 5 6
IE5 AC Addu City 94 2 2 4
IE6 FM Fuvahmulah 111 3 2 5
IE7 G Gamu 63 2 3 5
Total 742 15 19 34
The thematic analysis identified four overarching themes, namely preferences,
constraints, opportunities, and freedom. Each theme represented a broad category of
contextual factors that influence children’s nature experiences. Figure 4 shows a
simplified illustration of all the subthemes and themes. Details are provided in
Appendix 2.
Figure 4. Main Themes and Subthemes from Thematic Analysis Depicting Factors
that Influence Nature Experiences
The subthemes can be considered as dimensions of factors. The network diagram
connecting all themes, subthemes, and codes, as shown in Appendix 3, was used
in understanding patterns and relationships among the factors. For
contextualization, clarity, and depth of discussion, pseudonyms assigned to
participants (island code and number given to the participant) and gender were

30
sometimes used. In the discussion, capital IEs refer to those islands in the capital
city (see Table 1 and Figure 1). Only exemplary quotes are included in the
findings.
Theme 1: Preferences
Preferences captured what children liked to do during their free time while in
nature places (NPs) or outdoors. Preferences included five sub-themes: favorite
visit nature places; activities in nature places; non-nature-based pastimes; nature-based
pastimes; and mental well-being.
Favourite visit NPs included places children liked to visit. On all islands, most
children mentioned marine NPs, particularly the beach. A few children chose to
visit the reef and underwater, as voiced by a child from Villimale:
“I like to go to the coral reefs because they are very colourful, and they are
host to various sea creatures.”
Some children from outside the capital IEs mentioned mangroves or lakes [locally
synonymous with mangroves] and woods as their favourite non-marine NPs.
Within the capital IEs, children liked to visit gardens and parks:
“I like to go to the beach as well and also gardens and parks.” (ML1)
“They [children living in flats] can have a lot of garden space when they
have a flat.” (HM3)
Activities in NPs captured what children liked to do while in NPs. Children often
named nature-based activities, including swimming, fishing, and exploring;
exploring often involved looking for animals and plants:
“I just usually go for swimming.” (FM5)
“[I] Like to find new fishing spots.” (KF6)
“[I] Like exploring that, the place." (AC4)
“Observe all the new types of plants I haven’t seen, [and] see the different
insects and animals in the beach.” (ML2)
Children also liked to interact with plants, collect pebbles or rocks, play with sand,
climb trees and fish:
“I smell some flowers… give water to plants.” (ML1)
“Pick flowers and small pebbles.” (KF4)
“Build a sandcastle bigger than Mount Everest.” (HM4)
“When I’m in my island near big trees I’d climb on trees.” (HM2)
“[I] Like to find new fishing spots.” [KF6]
Another child explained,
“If it was an animal, I don’t touch it but if it is a flower and stuff, I touch
it.”
A few children mostly enjoyed relaxing in nature, while some removed trash:
“I like to just sit on the bench and feel the breeze.” (ML2)
“I usually pick up the trash underwater.” (VM)

31
Pastime activities examined time-use patterns routinely, rather than on occasions
when they visited nature places. Some children preferred non-nature-based
activities while in natural paces. These revolved around enjoyment rather than an
interest in nature itself. Examples include taking photographs, canoeing, walking
around, playing, riding bikes, and sightseeing, often with friends or family:
“I’m taking some photos of the trees, and animals.” (G5)
“We rode bicycles. We go there [to the park] for breakfast in the club, like
a family, so we have a lot of fun there.” (HM1)
“I was with my family venturing [in woods], you know sightseeing the
place a little.” (HM4)
Many children spend their free time doing non-nature-based pastimes. Reading
books was common on all the islands. Others enjoyed sports, hobbies, time with
family or screen-based games:
“I do a lot of craftwork during my free time.” (AF4)
“I kind of like dabble in photography a little.” (FM1)
“I have a really extended family. Most of the time I play with my
cousins.” (HM3)
“Play Minecraft.” (AC1)
Some girls in the capital IEs engaged in family responsibilities during their free
time.
“I normally like read books and in my sometimes free times I just take care
of my little sister. She’s just a little baby so I thought of taking care of her
while my mom is working. Just like help her a lot. That’s why.” (HM,
girl)
Nature-based pastimes characterized children’s preferred nature-engagements
during their free time. Playing with pets was the most favoured activity on all
islands. Others include fishing.
“I mostly play with my pet birds and let them explore around my house.”
(KF5)
“I like to go fishing, because it is my hobby.” (KF6)
A few children in the capital IEs liked to visit islands or sandbanks; others
preferred garden-related activities. Examples include,
“I go outside with my family to a trip; to someplace like a little island or
sandbank and stuff.” (HM3)
“There are potted plants in my house, I water them.” (VM5)
Mental well-being considered children’s enjoyment of nature because of an
underlying feeling of freedom or well-being. A child from one of the most diverse
islands said that he liked camp so much because “we can do whatever we want”
(FM2). Some children visited NPs “To have a peaceful mind” (KF2) or because “I feel
better” (KF1) or “it is so relaxing” (ML1). The emotional expressions below, made
by children from the capital IEs, are especially noteworthy:
“I like open spaces, not crowded spaces, so like... I just like to run around
and stay or walk in open spaces, like open spaces and natural spaces.”
(HM5)

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 10 October 2022

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 10 October 2022

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IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 10 October 2022