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- 1. UNIT-2 Slides for mid term exam
- 2. • Motivation is the driving force within individuals that impels them to action. • Needs are the essence of the marketing concept. Marketers do not create needs but can make consumers aware of needs.
- 3. • Innate Needs – Physiological (or biogenic) needs that are considered primary needs or motives • Acquired Needs – Learned in response to our culture or environment. Are generally psychological and considered secondary needs
- 4. • The sought-after results of motivated behavior • Generic goals are general categories of goals that consumers see as a way to fulfill their needs • Product-specific goals are specifically branded products or services that consumers select as their goals
- 5. Is a body spray an innate or acquired need?
- 7. • Rationality implies that consumers select goals based on totally objective criteria, such as size, weight, price, or miles per gallon • Emotional motives imply the selection of goals according to personal or subjective criteria
- 8. • What products might be purchased using rational and emotional motives? • What marketing strategies are effective when there are combined motives?
- 9. • Needs are never fully satisfied • New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied • People who achieve their goals set new and higher goals for themselves
- 10. • Are used when a consumer cannot attain a specific goal he/she anticipates will satisfy a need • The substitute goal will dispel tension • Substitute goals may actually replace the primary goal over time
- 11. • Failure to achieve a goal may result in frustration. • Some adapt; others adopt defense mechanisms to protect their ego.
- 12. • Methods by which people mentally redefine frustrating situations to protect their self-images and their self-esteem
- 13. Construct Items Aggression In response to frustration, individuals may resort to aggressive behavior in attempting to protect their self-esteem. The tennis pro who slams his tennis racket to the ground when disappointed with his game or the baseball player who physically intimidates an umpire for his call are examples of such conduct. So are consumer boycotts of companies or stores. Rationalization People sometimes resolve frustration by inventing plausible reasons for being unable to attain their goals (e.g., not having enough time to practice) or deciding that the goal is not really worth pursuing (e.g., how important is it to achieve a high bowling score?). Regression An individual may react to a frustrating situation with childish or immature behavior. A shopper attending a bargain sale, for example, may fight over merchandise and even rip a garment that another shopper will not relinquish rather than allow the other
- 14. Construct Items Projection An individual may redefine a frustrating situation by projecting blame for his or her own failures and inabilities on other objects/persons. Thus the golfer who misses a stroke may blame his golf clubs . Daydreaming Daydreaming or fantasizing enables the individual to attain imaginary gratification of unfulfilled needs. Identification People resolve feelings of frustration by subconsciously identifying with other persons or situations that they consider relevant. For e.g. if the individual experiences frustration, he overcomes the frustration by using the advertised product. Repression Another way that individuals avoid the tension arising from frustration is by repressing the unsatisfied need. Thus individuals may “force” the need out of their conscious awareness.
- 15. What type of defense mechanism is this spokesperson using in this ad?
- 16. • Physiological arousal • Emotional arousal • Cognitive arousal • Environmental arousal 16Chapter Four Slide
- 17. • Behaviorist School – Behavior is response to stimulus – Elements of conscious thoughts are to be ignored – Consumer does not act, but reacts • Cognitive School – Behavior is directed at goal achievement – Needs and past experiences are reasoned, categorized, and transformed into attitudes and beliefs 17Chapter Four Slide
- 18. • Researchers rely on a combination of techniques • Qualitative research is widely used • Projective techniques are often very successful in identifying motives. 18Chapter Four Slide
- 19. • Term coined in the 1950s by Dr. Ernest Dichter • Based on premise that consumers are not always aware of their motivations • Identifies underlying feelings, attitudes, and emotions
- 20. Perception • The process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world • Elements of Perception – Sensation – Absolute threshold – Differential threshold – Subliminal perception Chapter Six Slide
- 21. Sensation • Sensation is the immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to stimuli – A stimulus is any unit of input to any of the senses. • The absolute threshold is the lowest level at which an individual can experience a sensation.
- 22. Differential Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference – j.n.d.) • Minimal difference that can be detected between two similar stimuli • Weber’s law – The j.n.d. between two stimuli is not an absolute amount but an amount relative to the intensity of the first stimulus – The stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different. Chapter Six Slide
- 23. Marketing Applications of the J.N.D. • Marketers need to determine the relevant j.n.d. for their products – so that negative changes are not readily discernible to the public – so that product improvements are very apparent to consumers
- 24. Discussion Question • How might a cereal manufacturer such as Kellogg’s use the j.n.d. for Frosted Flakes in terms of: – Product decisions – Packaging decisions – Advertising decisions – Sales promotion decisions
- 25. Subliminal Perception • Stimuli that are too weak or too brief to be consciously seen or heard – They may be strong enough to be perceived by one or more receptor cells. • Is it effective? – Extensive research has shown no evidence that subliminal advertising can cause behavior changes – Some evidence that subliminal stimuli may influence affective reactions
- 27. Perceptual Selection Selection Depends Upon:
- 28. Why Are Consumers Likely to Notice This Ad?
- 29. The Attention-Getting Nature of a Dramatic Image
- 31. Organization • Figure and ground • Grouping • Closure • People tend to organize perceptions into figure- and-ground relationships. • The ground is usually hazy. • Marketers usually design so the figure is the noticed stimuli. Principles
- 32. Lacoste’s campaign uses a very plain ground so the symbol really shows. weblink
- 33. Which Concepts of Perception Are Applied in These Ads?
- 34. Learning • The process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related behavior
- 35. Elements of Learning Theories
- 36. Two Major Learning Theories
- 37. Information Processing and Memory Stores
- 38. Information Processing and Cognitive Learning • Cognitive Learning – Learning involves complex mental processing of information – Emphasizes the role of motivation
Hinweis der Redaktion
- Motivation is produced by a state of tension, by having a need which is unfulfilled. Consumers want to fulfill these needs and reduce the state of tension. For example, when you are very hungry, you are extremely motivated to find food. Perhaps when you need a new pair of pants, you are a bit less motivated to fulfill this need as compared to your need for food. In the case of needing pants, it is important for marketers to help increase your motivation and/or specify your need for their products - perhaps Diesel Jeans.
- The example of the need for food compared to a new pair of jeans can be further described by understanding types of needs. The need for food is more of an innate need and is considered a primary need. The need for a pair of jeans would be considered acquired. The need for clothing could be considered primary, but the need specifically for a pair of jeans is acquired, especially when they are a certain brand or designer jean. Needs may have a positive or negative direction. There are in fact some products we are NOT drawn to. For example, when people shop for funeral services, this is not something they are usually drawn to but rather must pursue and purchase.
- Continuing with our example of jeans, we can understand the types of goals that exist. When a consumer states they want a pair of jeans, they have stated a generic goal. When they announce they really want a pair of Calvin Klein jeans, then they have stated product-specific goals.
- We learned in an earlier slide that needs can be positive or negative. The same is true for goals which can be positive or negative. A positive goal would include joining a gym to get strong and train for an upcoming race. Another person, with a negative goal, might join the gym to avoid health problems that will certainly exist if they do not exercise regularly. Which are you?
- There has been extensive research regarding rational versus emotional motives during purchase. Their existence has been tied to how consumers view marketing variables, including advertisements and pricing adjustments. Furthermore, it must be realized that the definition of emotional vs. rational motivation differs significantly from one consumer to another and in different situations.
- You should consider that rational motives are often tied to products that are higher involvement and emotional motives are often used on low-involvement items. The marketing strategies will also differ in the amount of information and the advertising appeals.
- Motivation is highly dynamic and constantly changes in response to life experiences. Motivations change as we age, interact with others, change careers, acquire wealth, become ill, marry or divorce, or pursue education. Humans constantly have needs. This is due in part to the fact that our needs are never fully satisfied, or once satisfied, reappear. Hunger is a good example of a need that is often not satisfied and reappears. As humans, we also develop new needs as we satisfy existing needs. The hierarch of effects model shows how we meet our lower-level needs first and then move up the hierarchy. Finally, our needs are based on the goals that we set for ourselves. If one sets a goal to enter politics, they may feel they need a law degree. However, if they are unsuccessful in getting accepted at law school, their needs may change and they may want to pursue a few years of work experience first and need to find a job.
- It is very common that a consumer can not attain a goal. This may be due to a lack of money, ability, desire, or accessibility. In this instance, the consumer often substitutes a different goal to reduce the tension created from the existence of this need. In time, this substitute goal might replace the initial goal. For instance, if a consumer wanted a certain cable television service, but it was not available in their area, they might choose a satellite television provider. Over time, they may be very satisfied with this choice and feel that they actually prefer the satellite service over the cable television service.
- Failure to achieve a goal and the frustration that follows has been experienced by everyone at some time or another. Marketers must realize what consumers’ responses might be and how they can address these responses. Online education exists for those who are too far or do not have the structured time to attend college. The table on the next slide represents several defense mechanisms that consumers might exhibit when they are frustrated about not meeting a goal. The understanding of these defense mechanisms will help provide many opportunities to craft advertising messages to reach the emotional side of the consumers.
- Defense mechanisms are used when people cannot cope with frustration. They are often developed to protect one’s ego from feelings of failure when goals are not achieved. Perhaps you can identify a time when you used a defense mechanism when reacting to a difficult situation.
- Defense mechanisms are used when people cannot cope with frustration. They are often developed to protect one’s ego from feelings of failure when goals are not achieved. Perhaps you can identify a time when you used a defense mechanism when reacting to a difficult situation.
- A consumer has a variety of needs but only some of them are aroused at any given time and given top-of-mind priority. Motives become aroused by the consumer’s psychological condition (they get hungry), their emotional state (frustrated), cognitive processes (they read an ad that made them think about their needs), or by events occurring in their general surroundings (the weather becomes cold).
- There are two opposing philosophies that deal with the arousal of human motives. The behaviorists see motivation as a mechanical process that results from a stimulus – something prompts the behavior and people behave or react. On the other hand, the cognitive school believes that all behavior is directed toward a fulfilling of goals – consumers think through their motives.
- Motives are very difficult to identify and measure. This is in part because they are hypothetical and not physical concepts that can be weighed and measured with a ruler. Because they are not tangible, marketers must use a variety of measurement techniques. Because consumers often cannot or will not express their motivations outright, researchers use qualitative research to uncover consumer motives. Many of these qualitative research techniques are called projective techniques because the consumer must “project” their subconscious or hidden motives onto another stimulus. The following slide summarizes some projective techniques.
- Much of the research done in consumer behavior is based on motivational research. The understanding of consumers’ motives can help marketers make better products, communicate more clearly, and deliver benefits to the consumer. This web link will bring you to the homepage for Olson Zaltman Associates. When visiting the website, you can learn more about the ZMET method and the strengths of motivational research.
- Perception is how we see the world around us. You and your friend might see the same person, thing, or event yet you will interpret in different ways. This interpretation is highly individualized and depends on each person’s own needs, values, and expectations. These are the four major elements of perception. They will be described in detail on the following slides.
- Sensation is the response of the sensory organs, including the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin. Most of marketing focuses on sight and sound but much research is being done on smell and touch. The web link on this page connects to a company that uses smell as a marketing tactic. Advertisers must reach the absolute threshold for consumers to be able to experience their advertising tactic. It is interesting that the absolute threshold changes over time. Consumers adapt and get used to a certain ad or message so no longer notice it. This is one of the reasons why advertisers change their ads frequently.
- Marketers are very concerned with the differential threshold, which is also called the just noticeable difference. It was a German scientist named Ernst Weber who realized that this difference was not a fixed amount. The best example is when you buy a low-priced product like a cup of coffee from Starbucks. A $1 increase in your tall coffee would be noticed by you. But if you were buying a laptop whose price changed from $455 to $456 you might not even notice.
- Marketers make changes in their products over time. Sometimes they have to make negative changes, perhaps increase price or reduce package size. They want to make this negative change subtle enough that most consumers will not notice. On the other hand, a marketer might want to make positive changes to the product. They would want to determine how small they can make this change so that it is noticeable to the end consumer but does not cost the marketer excessive amounts of money. Marketers also want to be careful that when they change the look of a product or packaging, that consumers still recognize the brand and transfer their positive feelings toward the brand.
- Kellogg’s might want to change their ingredients, either to make the product healthier or because they have secured lower-priced raw materials. They might want to reduce package size to avoid a price increase and they would not want this to be noticed. Perhaps Tony the Tiger could look a little different. At one point, Pillsbury made a decision to make the Pillsbury Dough Boy a bit thinner. They wanted to make sure he still was cute but looked a bit more fit and lean.
- People have been fascinated by subliminal perception for over 50 years. The question is whether stimuli that are not consciously sensed can still be perceived and are therefore capable of altering behavior. At this point, there is no research that shows that it directly changes attitudes or purchase behavior. No doubt, there will continue to be research on this subject as many feel that there is indeed an effect from subliminal perception.
- Consumers are bombarded by stimuli and are therefore very selective as to what messages and information they perceive. As new information comes to their mind, it is organized within their mind. Finally, consumers interpret the stimuli based on their needs, expectations, and experience. Each of these stages will be examined on the following slides.
- Consumers are exposed to thousands, if not millions, of stimuli every day. The stimuli that they perceive depends on the three factors on this slide – nature of the stimulus, expectations, and motives. Think of the last time you went to the supermarket – what products did you notice? Why? Perhaps it was the nature of the stimulus, the packaging of the product. You might notice a sale on your favorite brand because you have positive expectations of how that brand performs. Finally, your motive in going to the supermarket might have been to purchase eggs and milk. This might lead you to notice promotions or point-of-purchase displays for these products.
- These four concepts are very important to consider when understanding how consumers select which stimuli they will perceive. In general, they are selective as to what they are exposed to – what messages they seek out. Once exposed, they are selective of their attention to some messages over others. Consumers might even screen out or block messages that they consider threatening or overwhelming.
- Organization refers to how people organize stimuli into groups and perceive them as a whole. This is referred to as Gestalt which means pattern in German. There are three major principles of perceptual organization, including figure and ground, grouping, and closure. The first, figure and ground, has to do with contrast. An advertiser wants just enough contrast so that the figure is noticed but that the background adds a sensory effect. Product placement, when a product appears in a movie or television show, can be considered a figure and ground issue. The advertiser wants the product (figure) to be noticed as it blends in with the ground (character in the show). This web link takes you to a very fun site called sporcle. The quiz that is opened for you refers to the top brands, organized by product category. Is this similar to how you organize these brands? How did you do on the test?
- This definition of learning can be looked at more specifically. It is important to realize that it is a process, that it changes over time as new knowledge and experiences are gained by the consumer. New knowledge and experience serve as feedback to the consumer and will influence their future behavior.
- There are the four major elements of all learning theories. Motivation is important because it will differ from one consumer to the next. We may all have a need, but some are more motivated to fulfill the need versus another. Often, a consumer does not realize they have a need. A cue is the stimulus that helps direct a consumer’s motives. They include price, styling, packaging, advertising, and store displays. A consumer will have a response to a drive or a cue. The response is how the consumer behaves after being exposed to a cue or developing motivation. Finally, reinforcement is tied to the likelihood that the response will occur in the future.
- These are the two general categories of learning that will be discussed in this chapter. Each is covered in extensive detail on future slides.
- The large blocks in this process are the three places where a consumer will store information before processing. The sensory store is very short term; it is where an image or sound will last for just a few minutes and then be forgotten. The short-term store is the stage where information is processed. Similarly to the sensory store, it is just held for a brief time. Information will move, through encoding, to the long-term store. Information here can last for relatively extended periods of time. Rehearsal, encoding, and retrieval move information from one place to the next. Rehearsal can be done either by repeating the information or relating it to other data. If held long enough, the information can be encoded, or given a word or visual image to represent the object. Retention, though not shown on this process chart, describes what happens with the information in long-term storage. As it is retained, it is constantly organized and reorganized. Finally, retrieval, the last stage of our process, describes how we recover information. Situational cues are the most common reason to retrieve information.
- This is a move away from the behavioral learning theories of classical and operant conditioning. Cognitive learning focuses on problem solving and consumer thinking. It is closely tied to information processing and how consumers store, retain, and retrieve information.