To manage means "to handle or control". Animal management is the care, control and handling of the animal species under study. In our livestock species, most of the time and energies of the animal manager are spent providing food and shelter and assuring optimal health and reproductive capacity of the animals under the care of the manager. In this course we will study "typical livestock management systems." While we refer to these as "typical" management systems, the particular management system in any livestock operation will vary depending upon the following:  species of animal  intended use of animal (dairy cow vs. beef cattle)  location - part of the country, climate, resources available, nearness to neighbors, etc.  resources of producer -- land, labor, capital  materials handling required -- what goes in and what comes out of system feed and water are materials handling inputs waste products and products to be marketed are materials handling outputs  government rules and regulations -- waste management, food safety, humane care, etc.  preference of producer, processor and consumer A Good Management system must do the following:  provide for basic needs of animal -- food, water, shelter  provide a product that can be sold at a profit for producer In operating a livestock management system, a great deal of time is devoted to providing food and water, assuring the health of the animals under one's care and assuring animal reproduction in systems where reproduction is important to providing the final product. As a consequence, we will devote the majority of lecture time in this course to these topics.

1. Applied Animal
Management Guide

2. Unit 1
Overview of Applied Animal Management
What do we mean by APPLIED?
 APPLICATION -- use, practice of animal management techniques
 Basic practical techniques commonly used in the livestock industry
o cost effective
o easily performed day after day, year after year
o good for the animals
With what species of animals are we concerned?
In this course, we will study animals raised commercially for food and fiber in the US
 Cattle - dairy - beef
 Sheep
 Swine
 Poultry
What do we mean by MANAGEMENT?
To manage means "to handle or control". Animal management is the care, control and
handling of the animal species under study. In our livestock species, most of the time and
energies of the animal manager are spent providing food and shelter and assuring optimal
health and reproductive capacity of the animals under the care of the manager. In this course
we will study "typical livestock management systems." While we refer to these as "typical"
management systems, the particular management system in any livestock operation will vary
depending upon the following:
 species of animal
 intended use of animal (dairy cow vs. beef cattle)
 location - part of the country, climate, resources available, nearness to neighbors, etc.
 resources of producer -- land, labor, capital
 materials handling required -- what goes in and what comes out of system
feed and water are materials handling inputs
waste products and products to be marketed are materials handling outputs
 government rules and regulations -- waste management, food safety, humane care,
etc.
 preference of producer, processor and consumer
A Good Management system must do the following:
 provide for basic needs of animal -- food, water, shelter

3.  provide a product that can be sold at a profit for producer
In operating a livestock management system, a great deal of time is devoted to providing food
and water, assuring the health of the animals under one's care and assuring animal
reproduction in systems where reproduction is important to providing the final product. As a
consequence, we will devote the majority of lecture time in this course to these topics.
Evolution of livestock management systems
Management systems are constantly evolving to more efficiently provide for the needs of
animals in an economical and socially acceptable manner. We can appreciate this by
examining the evolution of livestock production from the beginnings of the United States.
 early pioneers cleared small plots of land and raised food principally for themselves
 the industrial revolution created nonfarm jobs.
o This also "industrialized" farming as machines were invented to plant and
harvest crops, milk cows, etc.
o Agricultural industrialization was required so that farmers could produce
surplus food to feed the "city folk"
 the US moved from an agrarian society to an urban, industrialized society
Where are we now?
 Farm population = <2% US population
 2,073,000 farms/3,672,000 farm workers
 People fed/farmer = 138
What does the future hold?
 Larger production units controlled by fewer people
 Increasing governmental rules & regulations
 Decreasing knowledge and appreciation of agriculture by the general public
 Greater concern for product, food safety and environment
Broiler/Egg Laying Management System
Species -- Avian
General Characteristics

4.  Nutritional needs: Poultry are Monogastric animals and
cannot digest and utilize forages to meet their nutritional
needs. They need a complete balanced ration including grain,
concentrate and vitamin and mineral supplements.
 Environmental needs: Domesticated poultry are not readily
adapted to outside environments. They are generally of low
intelligence and are very susceptible to predators. Laying hens
will produce best when housed at a specific day length of
lighting.
Life Cycle Considerations
 Broiler operation: reproduction is NOT an important
consideration because chicks are supplied from a brood flock
at 1 day of age and raised to be sold
 Layer operation: reproduction is NOT an important
consideration because a hen will lay eggs without mating,
however lighting, nesting instincts, etc. must be considered.
 Primary and Multiplier Breeder Flocks are the only enterprises
where reproduction (mating, and production of fertile eggs) is a
prime concern.
In the United States, the poultry has become fully vertically integrated,
meaning that large corporations own all phases of the operation, including the
feed mills that supply feed to the individual farms, the processing plants, and
even the marketing and sales of the poultry products.
Vertical Integration in Poultry
One Corporation owns everything but primary breeder flock
Intended Use--produce meat and eggs for human consumption.
 Sanitation and food safety concerns are being regulated at the processing
and retail end of the fully integrated systems. The concern for protection of
the food supply from bacterial contamination will affect management practices
at the egg and broiler production phases as well.
Resources needed: Land, Labor, Capital

5.  Land is only needed for construction of the facilities; feedstuffs are typically
purchased.
 Labor needs are high in large flock commericial operations however much of
the feeding, egg collection, etc. has been automated in the poultry industry.
 Capital needs are high due to automation, need for feed storage and delivery
equipment, etc. Existing facilities are usually not very adaptable.
Materials Handling
 Input -- The materials handling input is high due to the large flock size
(1,000-5,000 birds per building) in a totally confined operation.
 Output --The materials handling output is also high due to daily egg
collection and removal of waste material between batches of animals.
Swine Farrow-to-Finish Management System
Species -- Porcine
General Characteristics
o Nutritional needs: Swine are also Monogastric animals and cannot
digest and utilize forages to meet their nutritional needs. They need a
complete balanced ration including grain, concentrate and vitamin and
mineral supplements.
o Environmental needs: Swine are readily adapted to both inside and
outside environments. Shelter and supplemental heat is needed during
farrowing phases of production. Modern swine facilities are moving
toward total confinement in which the feeding, health care and
reproductive cycle can be more carefully controlled to maximize
productivity. Some segments of the swine industry in the United
States are also moving toward a fully integrated production system,
similar to the poultry industry. Swine have a high level of intelligence.
Life Cycle Considerations:
o All stages of the life cycle are represented in a farrow-to-finish
management system, consequently, reproduction is an important
factor in the overall productivity of the operation. A different type of
operation, the feeder pig operation, is similar to the beef feedlot
operation, with purchase of nursery pigs who are simply fed and cared
for until they reach market age and are sold for meat. In the feeder pig
operation, reproduction would not be a consideration.
o Simultaneous management and care of different ages and life cycle
phases (farrowing, nursery, growing and finishing phases) is required.
This is accomplished in several different manners which are outlined
below:
Continuous flow production scheme: Pigs are moving through each
of the phases of this operation at any given time. As pigs reach the
desired age or body weight to progress to the next phase of production,

6. they are removed from a building and replaced by younger and lighter
weight pigs. There is mixing of pigs of differing ages in each of the
facilities.
All-in/All-out (AI/AO) production scheme: Pigs are grouped by age
and/or body weight and remain in the same group as they move
through the different production phases. When pigs move from one
facility to another, the facility is completely emptied of animals and
cleaned and sanitized before another group is moved into the facility.
Three site/Segregated Early Weaning (SEW) production scheme:
Pigs are weaned from the sow at 10-14 days of age and moved as a
group to a nursery located some distance from the farrowing facilities.
At completion of the nursery phase of production, they are again
moved as a group to a third site where the growing and finishing
facilities are located. As with AI/AO production, all facilities are
cleaned and disinfected between batches of pigs and traffic between
each of the facilities is minimized.
In addition to these three most common rearing schemes, there are many other
variations, such a recently introduced Wean-to-Finish management system.
Intended Use--produce lean meat acceptable to the consumer.
 Regulation of waste materials management is the subject of considerable
debate.
 Protection of the food supply from drug residues and bacterial contamination
are also becoming important issues.
Resources needed: Land, Labor, Capital
 Land requirement has traditionally been high, because a typical operation
produced its own grain and needed large amounts of highly productive crop
land. Many of the newer, large confinement operations, however, purchase all
their feed and only need land for construction of their facilities. The land
requirements for these operations may change as waste management
regulations evolve.
 Labor needs are high especially as intensity and herd size increase.
 Capital needs are high in confinement operations and are less in pasture
rearing systems.
Materials Handling
 Input -- The materials handling input is high due to large herd size
(1,000-5,000 sow) in many large confinement operations.
 Output --The materials handling output is also high due to waste
generated by large numbers of animals.

7. Unit 3
Poultry Reproduction
So far, in studying reproductive life cycle considerations, we have examined puberty,
pregnancy and parturition in mammalian species in which the offspring develop inside the
body of the dam and, after birth, are provided nourishment in the form of milk produced by
the dam. In the avian species, however, the dam produces an egg in which, if fertilized, the
offspring will undergo growth and development outside the body of the dam. The dam does
not suckle it's young, either. As a consequence, there are a number of contrasts between
avian and mammalian reproductive life cycles.
Puberty and Breeding in the Avian Species
 The hen reaches puberty and starts to produce eggs at 4-5 months of age. As with
mammals, the reproductive system is not functioning completely normally at the onset
and hens at puberty produce small egg sizes and high percentages of eggs with twin
yolks. Since these eggs do not produce viable offspring, hens are not bred to produce
young until they reach 5-6 months of age.
 The cockerel is capable of insemination at 4-5 months of age, but, like the hen, is not
used for breeding until 6 months of age to insure viable sperm.
 The natural instinct is to lay a "clutch" of eggs, become "broody", stop laying eggs
(ovulating), and set on eggs to hatch. This broodiness has, for the most part, been
bred out of our commercial breeds of poultry, and hens will produce eggs
continuously. Hens do not have an estrus cycle, and will lay an egg nearly every day.
 In contrast with mammalian species in which both ovaries are functional and either
ovulate simultaneously, or alternately, 99% of hens have only one functional ovary.
Reproductive Physiology of the Hen
The reproductive tract of the hen is also different from mammals, and different functions
are performed in different segments of the tract. The major structures are as follows:
 OVARY - containing immature and mature follicles. The mature follicles consist of
the egg "yolk" and the unfertilized ovum.
 INFUNDIBULUM - yolk with attached ovum is snatched up by the infundibulum.
It is at this point in the reproductive tract that the ovum is fertilized if the hen has been
mated with a cockerel. Spermatozoa from the cockerel are stored in "sperm nests"
located within the infundibulum and are capable of fertilizing ova for up to 30 days
after mating.
 MAGNUM - while traveling through this part of the oviduct, the albumin or egg
white is formed.
 ISTHMUS - the tough outer membrane located just beneath the egg shell is formed in
this part of the oviduct.

8.  UTERUS - also referred to as the "shell gland", this is where the egg shell is formed.
Most of the transit time from ovulation until the egg is laid is spent in the uterus.
 VAGINA - the egg travels through the vagina into the cloaca, from which it is "laid."
 CLOACA - this is the common external opening from which the contents of the
urinary tract (urates), the intestinal tract (feces) and the reproductive tract (eggs) exit
the hen.

9. General Information
 A hen is capable of producing an egg every 25 hours.
 Eggs are produced and laid regardless of whether the hen has been mated and the eggs
are fertile or not.
 A hen is capable of laying approximately 270 eggs per year.
 The embryo in a cracked fertile egg will not develop.
 Incubation and hatching of fertile egg
o humidity & temperature control are important factors in the hatchability of
fertilized eggs.
o Chicken -- eggs incubate 21 days; spend 1 day in hen; 22 days from
fertilization to birth of chick
o Turkey, duck -- eggs incubate 28 days for a total of 29 days from fertilization
to birth.
In addition to differences in the reproductive physiology, the development of avian offspring
differs significantly from mammals in a number of other ways:
 The shell takes the place of the uterus or womb in providing a dark, warm, moist
sterile environment in which the offspring develop.
 The albumin or egg white serves as a shock absorber for the developing embryo, just
as the amniotic fluid does within the mammalian amniotic membranes (birth sac).
 The yolk provides nourishment to the developing chick just as the umbilical cord
provides nourishment to the developing mammal. The yolk also provides maternal
antibodies to the chick to protect against infectious agents in the environment to
which the hen has developed an immunity (this is similar to colostrum in mammals).
 The chick develops outside and independent of the hen, and does not need the hen for
survival provided that the proper environment is provided by man for incubation of
the egg. Mammals develop inside the uterus of the dam and are dependent upon the
health and well-being of the dam throughout the entire gestation for their health and
well-being.
Animal Health Management
Part 1 -- Overview
Animal management and animal health cannot be separated-everything done to or for
an animal will have an impact on the animal's health, either positive or negative.
A. Health vs disease

10. 1. Health--state of an individual living in complete harmony
with its environment
2. Disease--condition in which an individual shows overt
physiological, anatomical or chemical changes from normal
3. The difference between a healthy and diseased animal is
that the healthy animal has not yet exhausted its normal
adaptive powers. The animal is able to cope with challanges
such that it does not adversely effect the animals' productivity.
Challenges may include:
o infectious disease
o nutrition
o genetic makeup of animal
o environment
4. A good health management program will minimize the
stresses and challenges on animals that may tip the balance in
favor of disease, it will strive to keep diseases and health
problems in check and still be economically feasible.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Recognizing What's Normal
In order to be able to tell when an animal is abnormal, it is important to know what is
considered normal for each animal species.
Normal physiologic parameters that can be easily observed or measured in
animal include the body temperature, pulse (number of heart beats per minute)
and respiration (the number of breaths an animal takes per minute). These are
commonly referred to as Vital Signs. Following are the normal ranges for vital
signs in our common livestock species.
Species Temperature Pulse Respiration
Cattle 100-103oF 40-70/min 30/min
Sheep 101-104 60-120 19
Horse 99-101 25-70 12
Swine 101-104 55-85 16

11. Chicken 105-109 250-300 12-36
Turkey 103-107 160-175 28-49
Recognition of abnormalities in an animal's behavior can also help to identify a sick animal.
Normal behavior patterns, however, also differ from one species to another. Examples of
differences in behavior between species follow:
 Normal eating, drinking behavior
Pig: scoops feed with jaw, takes a few bites, then drinks,
repeats until full, then lies down in comfortable spot to digest.
Chicken: takes water up in beak and raises head to swallow.
 Normal fecal and urination pattern--color, odor, consistency, frequency vary with
species and the diet being fed -- black, white or bloody feces are abnormal in all
species.
 Normal movement, posture, activity
 Normal vocalization
 Normal expression
It is important to remember that it is normal to have some variation! Examples of things that
will result in normal variation in behavior and even physiologic parameters are:
"Heat" or estrus
Pregnancy and parturition
These life cycle changes have an effect on "normal" eating, sleeping, movement, etc. A
calving cow goes off by itself. A sow paws as if to build a nest when close to parturition.
Most animals do not eat the day of parturition.
It is important to observe the entire herd for normal activities. Look for things such as:
Social order--pecking order
Reactions to: visitors, dogs, wild animals, new additions to
herd/flock, weather changes
Recognizing What's Abnormal --The Sick Animal
Cow: pulls forage with tongue, bites off and swallows whole,
continues until full, then finds a comfortable spot to ruminate in
sternal recumbency (one can observe cud chewing and see
rumen contractions).

12. For a manager that knows normal behavior, the sick or abnormal animal will
be evident. Once again, both physiologic and behavioral parameters can be
examined. Usually, the herdsperson will identify animals exhibiting abnormal
behaviors, and will then check out the physiologic parameters. Knowing what
is abnormal in the different body systems: digestive, respiratory, urinary,
nervous, integumentary (skin, hair and feathers), locomotor, circulatory is
essential. Examples of things to observe are listed below:
o Eating patterns--off feed, gaunt appearance
o Breathing, labored, etc
o Urination, defecation
o Movement
o Vocalization
o Appearance
o Weakness, collapse
o Excessive discharges-nasal, eye, anal, reproductive tract
Animal Health Management
Part B -- Control of Infectious Disease
Noninfectious Diseases
Although we will spend most of our efforts examining how to manage livestock to minimize
infectious diseases, noninfectious diseases also play a significant role in animal health.
These noninfectious diseases can be grouped into 4 general catagories, nutritional, metabolic,
toxic and genetic diseases. Following are examples of each:
1. Nutritional--deficiency or excess of essential nutrients, water
deprivation/salt toxicity, pregnancy toxemia
2. Metabolic--disorders of the animal's metabolic processes leading to such
diseases as milk fever, ketosis and pregnancy toxemia
3. Toxic--animal intoxications due to ingestion or exposure to toxic plants,
chemicals, insecticides, herbicides,etc.

13. 4. Genetic--disorders due to alterations or mutations in the animal's genetic
makeup; can be heritable or spontaneous. Examples are Bovine Leukocyte
adhesion deficiency (BLAD), Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID),
Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS).
Infectious Disease
Infectious diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi or protozoa. Before
examining each of these classes of infectious agents, however, there are several important
concepts that must be understood when dealing with infectious disease.
1. Contagious vs noncontagious disease -- Even though caused by an infectious agent,
not all infectious diseases are highly contagious (easily spread from one animal to
another by contact).
2. Infection does not always equal disease -- Even when an animal becomes infected
with one of the infectious agents, they may not show overt signs of disease.
Remember that the healthy animal has alot of reserve capacity to fight disease agents
and mayl not show signs of disease until those reserves are depleted and the animal is
overwhelmed.
3. Latent infections are infections that do not cause a visible disease in an animal. This
is an example of concept 2, in which infection does not always equal disease. Latent
infections can revert to a disease state, however, if the animal becomes stressed,
malnurished, etc.
4. Endemic vs epidemic disease -- Endemic disease is a state in which a disease agent is
circulating within a group of animals, but may be in a latent state and not be
noticeable. Many of the animals in the group will be infected and show no signs of
disease, many will have cleared the infecting agent and be immune, some will not be
infected but will be susceptible to the agent, and a few animals may actually be sick.
Epidemic disease is a state in which a group of naive animals become exposed to a
disease agent to which they have not immunity. In this instance, large numbers of
animals become sick and may die.
Parasites
 Size--most can be seen with the naked eye, or low power microscope-
multicellular organism-possess all genetic material and organelles needed to
reproduce
 Location
 Internal
stomach-sheep Haemonchus sucks blood and causes severe anemia
(bottle jaw) in sheep
intestine-roundworms-migrate through lung, liver, blood vessels,
causing damage during migration, compete for nutrients in the
intestine; hookworms, whipworms-suck blood from the intestine

14. lung worms, liver flukes are parasites that reside and damage the lungs
and liver of animals
 External
lice & mites-Northern fowl mite, mange mite
ticks-vector for other diseases-protozoan diseases, lyme disease; suck
blood
flies-irritating, larvae may migrate throughout body and cause disease-
stomach bot, nasal bot, warbles
 Means of spread
 Egg contamination of the environment -- eggs &/or larvae
often have long latent periods outside body
 Some internal parasites have an obligate intermediate host
such as snail or insect-spend part of the time someplace else.
 Vertical transmission -- from mother to offspring either in
utero or in milk
 Animal-to-animal contact -- external parasites are commonly
spread in this fashion
 Means of control (anthelmintics, mitocides, insecticides, etc.)--external-
dust, spray on, pour on. Also oral or injectable for both internal and external.
 Mech of action--some types of anthelminics kill the parasite
directly; others interfere with the life cycle of parasite at one
larval stage or another; others affect the nervous system-
paralyze the intestinal worm which is then passed out with
feces. Currently, there are no effective vaccines licensed in US
to protect against parasitic infection.
 Development of resistance of parasite to the anthelmintic has
been a problem with older medications; ivermectin very
effective against wide spectrum of both internal and external,
but expensive.
 Management techniques to minimize parasitic disease:
1) remove fecal material, disinfect, fumigate
2) rotate pastures
3) drain mudholes
4) monitor for disease -- vet examination of skin scrapings,
fecal egg counts
5) prevent fecal contamination of feed
6) prompt removal of sick and dead animals

15. 7) do not feed garbage, especially uncooked (Trichinella
spiralis)
Bacteria and Viruses
o Size--
 Bacteria require light microscope to visualize, unicellular organism-
possess all genetic material to reproduce.
 Viruses--submicroscopic, requires electron microscope to visualize
and identify by size and shape, piece of DNA or RNA and envelope
and a few enzymes-requires host cell to produce, reproduce.
 Means of spread--
 Direct contact between animals,
 Some bacteria and viruses can survive in environment,
 Others are obligate intracellular organisms, can only live and
multiply within the animal. Some bacteria can survive and multiply in
a contaminated environment
 Means of control
 Bacteria--antibiotics to treat infection, vaccines to protect against
infection
 Viruses--vaccines to prevent infection-nothing short of new
generation interferon-type agents can treat infection and those are too
expensive for animal use
 It is important to have a veterinarian confirm the diagnosis of
bacterial and viral infections, because many different agents may cause
diseases that appear the same
Fungi and Protozoa
o Fungi
 Types
Cutaneous -- contagious, and some are spread to man (zoonotic)
Systematic -- usually noncontagious and most often found in animals
with defective immune systems
 Control
Clean, sanitary environment
Quarantine and isolation of new stock, infected animals
Topical and/or systemic antifungal drugs
o Protozoa
 Types
Blood-borne
Gastrointestinal -- Coccidia
 Spread
Dam to offspring
Environment -- fecal-oral for coccidia
Biting insects or dirty needles and syringes for blood-borne

16.  Control
Cleanliness
Coccidiostat drugs
Biologics and Pharmaceuticals
o Vaccines -- The purpose of a vaccine is to stimulate the animal's immune system to
produce an active immunity. Vaccines are used to prevent diseases, not cure them.
There are three general classes of vaccines:
Modified live (attenuated) vaccine--disease producing properties reduced, organism grows
and multiplies in animal, stimulates stronger immune response
a. must be stored properly or it will loose effectiveness
o b. restrictions to use
 age of animal
 restricted in pregnant animals
o c. can cause mild disease with some types-if given to sick, debilitated
animals, can cause apparent disease
 Bacterin--killed bacteria, don't need to worry about causing disease-
autogenous is made from strains present on farm (custom designed) usually
doesn't provide as long lasting protection
 Toxoid--prepared from a potent toxin that has been detoxified and will provide
immunity to to effects of the toxin (tetanus, Clostridium perfringens enteritis
in baby pigs)
Always read and follow the label before using vaccines!! Failure of a vaccine to adequately
protect an animal against disease can be due to vaccine factors, animal factors, or human
factors!
o Antibiotics -- The purpose of antibiotics are to treat bacterial infections; antibiotics
are ineffective against viruses and most parasitic diseases.
 Types:
Bacteriostatic
Bactericidal
 Effective only against bacteria, not viruses
 WITHDRAWAL TIMES IN FOOD PRODUCING ANIMALS
 Use proper antibiotic for type of infection and use for perscribed duration-
one shot is worse than none-development of resistance
o Routes of Administration of Biologics and Pharmaceuticals

17. 1. Topical--pour on anthelmintics, antibiotic ointment for superficial wounds,
etc.
2. Oral--in water, feed, as drench, bolus or pill given with balling gun, paste
squirted into mouth
3. Parenteral--injection, either intramuscular (IM), intravenous (IV) or
subcutaneous (SQ)--important to use proper route
o Proper handling and use
1. READ LABEL--storage, expiration, route of administration, withdrawal
2. Sterile technique--clean needles and syringes, proper size, clean injection site
Animal Health Management
Part C -- Role of Management in Animal Health
At the beginning of this course, we examined a number of different Management Systems
used in livestock production. Now we will examine how differing systems may affect animal
health and what general things can be done to minimize disease in any production system.
Type of Animal Production System
 Confinement vs open range -- The spread of most diseases is greater when large
numbers of animals are in close proximity. Range animals, however, may have
greater exposure to intermediate hosts for parasites such as the liver fluke, and to
toxic plants. The quality of feedstuffs may not be as good and may lead to metabolic
disease.
 All-in/all-out vs continuous production in total confinement systems -- All-in/all-out
production breaks the cycle of disease agents, and prevents the spread to differing age
groups, the younger of which are usually more susceptible. Groups of animals kept
together throughout their productive life don't fight as much, because they don't have
to continually re-establish the social pecking order.
 Feedlot cattle on high protein diet, finishing swine on high protein diet -- If these
animals go off feed for 1-2 days and are then reintroduced to same high protein diet, it
can result in health problems such as rumen acidosis (grain overload), or gastric ulcers
Herd Protection and Biosecurity -- General Considerations

18.  Control outside traffic-people & vehicles--provide boots and coveralls for visitors
 Control birds, rodents, stray animals
 Good animal isolation--good fences
 Quarantine sick animals -- have sick pen capabilities
 Necropsy dead animals to determine cause of death
 Good animal identification, production, reproduction and health records
Sanitation Program
 Physically clean facilities and equipment -- organic matter provides a good
environment for growth of microbes, prevents effective use of disinfectants,
fumigants
 Use disinfectants/fumigants between batches of animals -- USE THESE
PRODUCTS PROPERLY(can cause burns, fumigants can kill)
 Other sanitary measures
 Prompt removal and proper disposal of dead animals
 Clean equipment-feeders, waterers
 Clean source of water, feed
 No standing water--mud holes, wet stalls, pens, etc.
 Clean, dry bedding
Vaccination Program
It is important to establish a vaccination program to prevent diseases that are endemic in the
area in which the herd or flock is being reared. Consult your veterinarian to design the most
cost-efficient protection plan. Preconditioning of calves and other animals is important to
assure the vaccines are effective.
New Animal Introductions
 Purchase animals from a reputable source -- check production and
reproduction records, disease program, look at entire herd, not just the animal
you want to purchase.
 Isolate and blood test new additions; a minimum 3 week quarantine with a
retest at end of quarantine is recommended; consult your veterinarian for
specific recommendations for the animal species and diseases of concern.
 Health papers for purchased animals
 Use AI to eliminate the need to purchase animals
Keep abreast of your industry; establish a good working relationship with your
veterinarian, university extension service, and feed representatives.
Productivity and Nutrition

19. The objective of this unit of study is to establish a common understanding of some nutrition
basics and an appreciation for proper livestock nutrition. Students are strongly recommended
to take additional courses in nutrition for a more complete knowledge of nutitional
requirements and techniques used in formulating and balancing rations. There are six basic
classes of nutrients that must be considered in forumulating diets; water, protein,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. In Frank B. Morrison's Feeds & Feeding, a
nutrient is defined as "Any feed constituent or group of feed constituents of the same general
chemical composition that aids in support of animal life."
A number of factors can make an understanding of livestock nutrition very confusing.
 Many (most) feedstuffs or ingredients in a ration contain more than one of the six
basic nutrients. For instance, a kernel of corn contains all six basic nutrients:
o Water -- 13-15% when dried for storage
20-35% field moisture at harvest or if stored as high moisture corn
o Protein -- 7-9% crude protein is a typical value
o Carbohydrate -- mainly in starch portion of the kernel
o Fat -- mainly in the oil portion
o Vitamins
o Minerals
 Commonly used feed ingredients may vary considerably in the content of the six basic
nutrients. The example of corn from above demonstrates that the water content can
vary widely, as can other perimeters. Some varieties of corn contain high levels of
specific nutrients, such as lysine or oil.
 The unique physiology and metabolism of different animals enables some to utilize
some feed ingredients to their benefit while other animals of a different species
cannot.
o Nonprotein nitrogen sources can be converted to amino acids and from amino
acids to protein by ruminants and hindgut fermenters; monogastric animals
cannot utilize these feedstuffs.
o Fiber (roughages - hay, grasses) can be broken down by ruminants and
hindgut fermenters to provide an energy source; monogastric animals cannot
utilize these feedstuffs.
o Some feed constituents are essential for certain species, but not for others.
Proline and glycine are essential amino acids and must be added to poultry
diets; other species can synthesize them from other amino acids.
 There are "linkages" or relationships between different basic nutrients.
o Selenium (a mineral) is linked to Vitamin E; they share many "duties" in the
body and one can often be substituted for the other.
o Fats, carbohydrates and proteins can all be used to provide energy to the body
and can be additive in meeting the energy requirements of an animal. (Protein
will be converted to energy producing subunits if fed in excess of it's basic
metabolic needs.)

20. o Calcium and Phosphorus must be fed at the appropriate "ratio" for maximal
utilization and to prevent interference with other mineral metabolism.
 No single feed ingredient can supply all 6 basic nutrients an animal needs to survive
and be productive.
o One must "balance" the ratio of different feed ingredients to meet the
individual animal's needs.
o The nutrient needs of an animal varies depending upon the species, age, stage
of lifecycle, etc.
 In addition to meeting an animal's basic nutrient requirements, a diet must also meet
the "3 P's" to be useful as a livestock feed.
o Palatable -- must be edible, accepted, and eaten by the animal
o Profitable -- if the livestock producer cannot make a profit feeding certain
ingredients, he/she won't be in business very long. Approximately 75% of the
out-of-pocket costs in livestock production is feed costs.
o Productive -- animals eating the diet must be productive. The least cost
ration may just barely meet the animal's nutrient requirements, but not allow
the animal to function at it's most productive level. The optimal ration is athe
ration that can be produced for the least cost for the benefit returned in animal
performance (growth, productivity, longevity, reproductive performance, etc.)
Six Classes of Nutrients
1. Water
 The Most Critical Nutrient!
o Functions in transport, chemical reactions, temperature maintenance,
lubrication, etc.
 Water deprivation ---> dehydration ---> electrolyte imbalance ---> death
 Requirements vary from one species to another. For example, the desert rat requires
very little, while the dairy cow may require 25-29 gallons/day.
 Management problems leading to lack of water
o bad taste (high sulfur content)
o don’t know how to use or cannot find waterer
o stray voltage at water source
2. Carbohydrates (CHO)
 Functions
o energy source
o building block for other nutrients
o dietary excess stored as fat
 Two main components of carbohydrates
o Crude fiber (cellulose mainly)
o Nitrogen-free extract (soluable sugars, starches)
 Differences between monogastric, hindgut fermenter and ruminant

21. o Ruminants and hindgut fermenters have microorganisms in the rumen or
hindgut that can break down crude fiber (cellulose) into useable products;
monogastrics cannot utilize most crude fiber.
o All livestock are capable of breaking down the soluable sugars and starches.
 Management Problems
o poor quality feedstuffs
o improper ration balancing
3. Fats (lipids)
 Functions
 Energy (stored at higher conc./g than CHO)
 Source of heat, insulation, body protection (cushioning)
 Essential fatty acids (immune function, CLA-anticancer link?)
 Sources
o Oils (soybean oil, corn oil, fish oil)
o By product fats (lard or tallow from livestock rendering)
 provides cheap energy source
 reduces dust in feed manufacturing and animal feeding
 increases feed palatability
4. Proteins
 Most expensive ingredient in ration, need decreases as animal matures
 Source of Essential Amino Acids (number, type and level of amino acids required
varies with animal species)
o Functions -- basic structural unit, needed in metabolism, hormone, antibody
and DNA production
 When fed in exess, converted to energy, fat
 Monogastric vs. ruminant
o True protein is composed of amino acids
o Crude protein contains both true protein and other nitrogenous products (non-
protein nitrogen)
o Non-protein nitrogen can be converted by rumen bacteria to true protein
(cheaper source of protein for the ruminant animal)
5. Minerals
 Two classes
o Major minerals -- Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mg, K, S
o Minor (Trace minerals) -- Co, Cu, F, I, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn
 The need for supplementation of minor minerals such as Se and F
varies with the region
 Functions -- skeleton, protein synthesis, oxygen transport, fluid and acid-base balance
in body, enzyme reactions
 Mineral/mineral and vitamin/mineral interactions
o Ca - Vitamin D
o P - Vitamin D
o Co - Vitamin B12
o Se - Vitamin E

22.  Both deficiencies and excesses can lead to disease
6. Vitamins
 Two classes
o Water soluble -- B & C
o Fat soluble -- A, D, E, K
 Functions -- most vitamins have multiple functions in body involving metabolism,
enzyme reactions, etc.
 Requirements increase with age
 Both deficiencies and excesses lead to disease