Sexualisation of-young-people

Sexualisation of Young People
Review
by Dr Linda Papadopoulos

Sexualisation of Young People Review

Contents
Foreword 3

1. Executivesummary 5

2. Introduction 17

3. Backgroundandcontext 19

4. Whatissexualisationandwhydoesitmatter? 22

5. Sexualisedcontentandthemainstreamingofpornography 33

6. Theimpactofsexualisation 53

7. Sexualisationandviolence 65

8. Recommendations 75

9. Bibliography 85

10. Acknowledgements 100

1


Foreword
hyper-sexualisation and objectification
of girls on the one hand, and hyper-
masculinisation of boys on the other,
perpetuate and reinforce each other.
Throughout the course of the review,
what has become very apparent is that
sexualisation is a multi-factorial issue
and therefore needs to be approached
from a range of perspectives, taking into
account not only the emotional and
cognitive development of children but also
the influence of family, culture and society
as a whole.
Over the past months, my team and I have
reviewed hundreds of articles from the
fields of psychology, sociology, education,
politics and media. We have interviewed
people working on the front-line with
When I was approached by the Home
abused children and abusers. We have
Secretary to conduct an independent
spoken to young people, parents, teachers,
review on the impact of the sexualisation
clinicians, academics, policy-makers and
of young girls on violence against women,
lobbyists. What came across loud and clear
I genuinely welcomed the opportunity to
is that this is a very emotive issue – and so,
take a critical look at this area. As both
I wanted to ensure that the evidence
a psychologist and as a mother, I was
was presented as objectively as possible
very aware that this was a topic that was
so that a public debate could ensue and
gaining increasing amounts of attention
informed decisions about how to address
both in academic literature and the
these issues could be made. This is not an
popular press.
opinion piece, the evidence and arguments
Although the original intention of the presented within this document are not
review was to focus on how sexualisation based on conjecture but on empirical data
is affecting girls, it quickly became evident from peer reviewed journals, and evidence
that we could not talk about girls without from professionals and clinicians. Behind
acknowledging the concomitant impact the social commentary and the headlines
on boys and the hyper-masculinised about inappropriate clothing and games
images and messages that surround them. for children, there are the real statistics, on
The scope of the review was therefore teenage partner violence, sexual bullying
widened to encompass the sexualisation and abuse that need to be acknowledged
of all young people and to look at how and addressed.

3


In addressing these issues we must not
forget that sexual curiosity is a normal
feature of childhood and therefore
we need to provide young people
with the tools that will enable them
to deal with sexual content safely and
successfully. I believe that providing our
kids with a set of realistic, non-exploitative
representations of gender and sexuality
would go a long way towards ensuring
their healthy emotional – and sexual
– development and promoting gender
equality.
I want my little girl, indeed, all girls and
boys, to grow up confident about who
they are and about finding and expressing
their individuality and sexuality, but not
through imposed gender stereotypes
or in a way that objectifies the body
or commodifies their burgeoning
sexuality. This review is a step towards
understanding how, as parents, as
educators and as citizens we can take
responsibility for creating safe and
supportive environments for our children
to understand and explore relationships
and sexuality – and ensure that they do so
in their own time and at their own pace.

4


1. Executive summary

“How have sex, sexiness and sexualisation
gained such favour in recent years as to be the
measure by which women’s and girls’ worth is
judged? While it is not a new phenomenon by
any means, there is something different about
the way it occurs today and how it impacts on
younger and younger girls.”1
1. Violence against women and sexually available. The report looks
girls is unacceptable, whatever at examples and the prevalence of
the circumstances and whatever sexualisation in culture and proposes
the context. In March 2009, the mechanisms by which sexualised
government launched the Together messages are being internalised and
We Can End Violence Against Women the consequences of these on young
and Girls consultation in order to raise people.
awareness of the problem and explore
policy proposals and ideas designed to 3. The world is saturated by more
help prevent violence against women images today than at any other
and girls. This report forms part of time in our modern history. Behind
that consultation.1 each of these images lies a message
about expectations, values and ideals.
2. This review looks at how sexualised Women are revered – and rewarded
images and messages may be affecting – for their physical attributes and both
the development of children and girls and boys are under pressure to
young people and influencing cultural emulate polarised gender stereotypes
norms, and examines the evidence from a younger and younger age.
for a link between sexualisation The evidence collected in this report
and violence. The decision by the suggests these developments are
government to commission this review having a profound impact, particularly
reflects the importance of the issue on girls and young women.
and the popular perception that
young people (and in particular young
women and girls) are increasingly
being pressured into appearing

1
McLellan, Sexualised and Trivialized – Making 5
Equality Impossible. Quoted in: Tankard Reist
(2010)


Sexualisation, learning is also the cumulative or ‘drip drip’
effect of exposure to sexualised
and development messages, themes and images over
time and in diverse settings. Children
4. Healthy sexuality is an important
and young people now have easy
component of both physical and
access to material that may not be
mental health. When based on mutual
age-appropriate. Core cognitive
respect between consenting partners,
learning and developmental theories
sex fosters intimacy, bonding and
demonstrate that children learn
shared pleasure.2 Sexualisation is the
vicariously from what they see, and
imposition of adult sexuality on to
that exposure to themes which a child
children and young people before they
is not developmentally ready to cope
are capable of dealing with it, mentally,
with can have a detrimental effect.5
emotionally or physically.
7. Children and young people today
5. While sexualised images have featured
are not only exposed to increasing
in advertising and communications
amounts of hyper-sexualised images,
since mass media first emerged,
they are also sold the idea that they
what we are seeing now is an
have to look ‘sexy’ and ‘hot’. As such
unprecedented rise in both the
they are facing pressures that children
volume and the extent to which these
in the past simply did not have to face.
images are impinging on everyday
As children grow older, exposure to
life. Increasingly, too, children are
this imagery leads to body surveillance,
being portrayed in ‘adultified’ ways
or the constant monitoring of personal
while adult women are ‘infantilised’.3
appearance. This monitoring can result
This leads to a blurring of the
in body dissatisfaction, a recognised
lines between sexual maturity and
risk factor for poor self-esteem,
immaturity and, effectively, legitimises
depression and eating disorders.6
the notion that children can be related
Indeed, there is a significant amount of
to as sexual objects.
evidence that attests to the negative
6. A number of factors shape the effects of sexualisation on young
way children and young people are people in terms of mental and physical
responding to the sexualisation of health, attitudes and beliefs.7
culture. One of the most significant
8. If we are going to address this issue
is the individual child’s age and
then young people need to develop
level of cognitive and emotional
and grow in surroundings where
development. Regardless of a child’s
they are admired for their abilities,
level of sophistication, when it comes
talents and values. It is important to
to internalising media and advertising
stress however, that in the diverse,
messages, there is a large body
multicultural UK context, cultural,
of research from developmental
religious and class backgrounds will
psychologists that attests to the fact
invariably influence the family’s role in
that young children do not have
mediating sexualised media content
the cognitive skills to cope with
persuasive media messages.4 There
5
Bandura (1971); Bem (1981)
6
McKinley (1999); Moradi et al. (2005); Polivy,
2
Satcher (2001) Herman et al. (2002); Tolman, Impett, Tracy and
3
Evidence provided to the review by Michael (2006)
Dr K. Sarikakis (2009) 7
Abramson and Valene (1991); Durkin and
6
4
Mayo Nairn (2009) Paxton (2002); Harrison (2000)


and views of what is appropriate it is important to look at the social
and acceptable. The psychological scripts children are being influenced by
ramifications of sexualisation, from and what makes children susceptible
violence in teenage relationships to to them.
self-objectification, are seen across
diverse class systems, suggesting Magazines, marketing and
that the issue of sexualisation is not advertising
confined to either a single race or class.
12. A dominant theme in magazines
seems to be the need for girls to
Sexualised present themselves as sexually
content and the desirable in order to attract male
attention.9 Worryingly, there is also a
mainstreaming of trend for children in magazines to be
dressed and posed in ways designed
pornography to draw attention to sexual features
9. Children and young people are that they do not yet have. At the same
exposed to an unprecedented time, advice on hairstyles, cosmetics,
range of media content, through an clothing, diet, and exercise attempt
ever-growing number of channels. to remake even young readers as
Furthermore, the proportion of objects of male desire,10 promoting
that content which is sexual or premature sexualisation.11 In the case
even pornographic is increasing at a of boys, ‘lads’ mags’ contain a high
dramatic rate. Until relatively recently, degree of highly sexualised images of
there was a way to at least try and women that blur the lines between
ensure that these were targeted to pornography and mainstream media.
the right audience. However, there is The predominant message for boys
no ‘watershed’ on the internet, and is to be sexually dominant and to
sexualised images and adverts may objectify the female body.
appear anywhere and are often sent 13. Over the past three decades there has
indiscriminately to e-mail accounts and been a dramatic increase in the use
mobile phones. of sexualised imagery in advertising.
10. With proliferation comes While most of this imagery features
normalisation. It is no surprise women,12 there has also been a
therefore that when researchers significant increase in the number
examine the content of young of sexualised images of children.13
people’s web pages they find that Sexualised ideals of young, thin, beauty
young teens are posting sexually lead to ideals of bodily perfection
explicit images of themselves on social that are difficult to attain, even for
networking sites, and self-regulating the models, which perpetuates the
each other with sexist, derogatory and industry practice of ‘airbrushing’
demeaning language.8 photographs. These images can lead

11. In order to genuinely understand
one of the main factors at play here,
9
Carpenter (1998); Durham (1998); Garner,
Sterk, and Adams (1998); McMahon (1990)
namely how young people internalise
the messages they are exposed to,
10
Duffy and Gotcher (1996)
11
Rush and La Nauze (2006)
12
Reichert et al. (1999)
8
Ringrose (2008) 13
Tankard-Reist (2010)
7


people to believe in a reality that does 16. Music channels and videos across all
not exist, which can have a particularly genres have been found to sexualise
detrimental effect on adolescents.14 and objectify women.20 Women are
often shown in provocative and
14. At the same time, marketers are revealing clothing and are depicted as
effectively encouraging young girls being in a state of sexual readiness.
to present themselves in a sexual Males on the other hand are shown
way. Bratz dolls for example, are as hyper-masculine and sexually
child-friendly characters presented in dominant. Research into the often
a notably sexualised way.15 Pencil cases sexual and violent content of music
and stationery for school children lyrics is comparatively thin on the
carry the Playboy bunny logo. Padded ground. However, an important
bras, thongs and high heeled shoes are connection between sexualised music
marketed and sold to children as young lyrics and their influence on shaping
as eight. Such blurring suggests that it young people’s early sexual activity
is acceptable to impose adult sexual is that the causality is not just related
themes onto children, and potentially to sexual content of lyrics, but also to
relate to children as sexual objects.16 their degrading nature.21
Television, film and music New technologies
15. Women on TV are far more likely 17. Over 80 per cent of young people
than their male counterparts to use the internet daily or weekly22 and
be provocatively dressed17 and around a third of 8–11-year-olds and
scenes of violence against women 60 per cent of 12–15-year-olds say
are increasingly common. A recent that they mostly use the internet on
report found that depictions of their own.23 Almost half of children
violence against women on TV had aged 8–17 and a quarter of those
risen by 120 per cent since 2004 aged between eight and 11 have a
while violence against teenage girls profile on a social networking site
rose by 400 per cent.18 There is also such as Bebo, MySpace or Facebook.24
a significant under-representation of While sites set age limits (typically
women and girls in non-sexualised 13 or 14), these are not generally
roles in films. In the 101 highest enforced. Social networking sites
earning family films between 1990– allow children and young people
2004 over 75% of characters were to create online identities. Girls, for
male, 83% of narrators were male and instance, report being under increasing
72% of speaking roles were male.19 pressures to display themselves in
By missing the chance to present girls their ‘bra and knickers’ or bikinis
with a diverse range of characters online, whereas boys seek to display
to identify with, the visibility of their bodies in a hyper-masculine way
more hyper-sexualised heroines will showing off muscles, and posturing as
inevitably have a bigger impact. powerful and dominant.25 Sexualised
14
Coleman (2008) 20
Andsager and Roe (1999); Seidman (1992);
15
Evidence provided to the review by the British Sommers-Flanagan and Davis (1993)
Board of Film Classification (2009) 21
Matino et al (2006). Quoted in Coy (2009)
16
Buckleitner and Foundation (2008) 22
Livingstone, Bober and Helsper (2005)
17
Eaton (1997) 23
Ofcom (2009)
18
www.parentstv.org/PTC/publications/reports/ 24
Ofcom (2008)
womeninperil/main.asp
8
25
Ringrose (2010)
19
Kelly and Smith (2006)


self-presentation could also mean that this review.31 Mobile phones are also
young people are exposing themselves being used for so-called ‘sexting’ – the
to danger: recently, public attention sending, often unsolicited, of sexually
has focused on the use of social explicit messages.
networking sites to sexually solicit
underage children and young people. 20. With advances in technology, video
games are becoming increasingly
18. With the rise of the internet, it is not graphic and realistic.32 At the same
now a case of if a young person will time, children are more and more
be exposed to pornography but when. likely to play games without adult
Before the mainstreaming of internet supervision: three-quarters of
access, it was asserted that the average 12–15-year-olds have a games console
age of first exposure to pornography in their bedroom.33 Many games
was 11 for males26; however, latest feature highly sexualised content and
research suggest that this age is now there is a notable lack of strong female
much lower.27 A recent YouGov survey characters.34 The link between violent
found that 27 per cent of boys are content and aggression has been cited
accessing pornography every week, in several studies35 and it is widely
with 5 per cent viewing it every day. accepted that exposure to content
The survey also found that 58 per that children are either emotionally
cent had viewed pornography online, or cognitively not mature enough for
on mobile phones, in magazines, in can have a negative impact. Whereas
films or on TV. Another study showed parents are not likely to allow their
that a quarter of young people had children to watch an 18 film, they are
received unsolicited pornographic junk much more lenient when it comes to
mail or instant messages while almost allowing their children to play age-
one in eight had visited pornographic inappropriate games. This may be
websites showing violent images.28 because they do not fully understand
either the realism or the themes that
19. By the age of 15, 95 per cent of young these games contain.
people have their own mobile phone.29
Mobile phones allow young people The role of parents, schools
easy access to all kinds of online
content, regardless of whether or not and corporate responsibility
it is appropriate. Figures show that in 21. The evidence so far indicates that
2007, mobile phones were the UK’s it is time we critically examine the
biggest distributor of pornography.30 cumulative effect of the media
The use of mobile phones as a tool messages to which our children are
for bullying, controlling or monitoring exposed and how we can mitigate any
a dating-partner has attracted negative effects resulting from them.
considerable media attention recently, Installing filters on computers and
and was frequently raised during the locks on mobile phones is of course
evidence sessions held as part of important. But sexualised content

26
Bryant (1985)
31
Evidence Hearing Sessions for the Review
(May 2009 – July 2010)
27
Greenfield (2004) 32
Martinez and Manolovitz (2009)
28
Livingstone and Bober et al. (2005) 33
Ofcom (2009)
29
Ofcom (2008) 34
Dill and Thill (2007)
30
Juniper Research, Quoted in: Daw and Cabb
(2009)
35
Anderson and Dill (2000); Freedman (2002);
Deselms and Altman (2003) 9


is everywhere and, often, children
and young people are accessing it
The impact of
alone, in a setting that gives them sexualisation
no opportunity to ask questions or
discuss their feelings. Body image and gender
22. Parents are a powerful force in shaping inequality
their children’s attitudes to gender 25. In the past it was adult women who
and sexuality and have a vital role felt the imperative to look ‘hot’ and
to play in supporting their children ‘sexy’, now this imperative is being
to cope with and contextualise adopted by younger and younger
sexualised images and messages. girls who will inevitably face the same
However, parents can also contribute feelings of inadequacy and failure to
to the sexualisation of their children live up to an unrealistic ideal. The
in very direct ways. For example, by mass media promotes and reinforces
reinforcing self-objectification through an idealised notion of beauty for
encouraging or supporting the use of both men and women, presenting
cosmetic surgery as a means of ‘fixing’ standards – of thinness for women
poor body confidence or self-esteem and of muscularity for men – that few
– a phenomenon that is increasing at can ever hope to achieve. The effects
an alarming rate.36 of this are apparent – eating disorders
are on the rise. The eating disorder
23. Schools can help children develop charity BEAT estimates that 1.6 million
the capacity to interpret and filter people in the UK have an eating
information and to recognise and disorder. The vast majority of these
value diversity. As such perhaps we – some 1.4 million – are female.37
need to consider the value of media And now we’re starting to see what
literacy and gender studies and begin happens when you tweak the message
to see them as core to the curriculum – young women need to be not
we teach our children. Sex education, only thin, but also sexually desirable.
too, must focus on preparing young As anorexia increases so now does
people to form healthy, respectful, the number of young women having
emotionally fulfilling relationships. breast implants at an increasingly
24. Businesses must also play their part younger age.38
here. There have been numerous 26. It can be tempting to think that
reports over the past few years girls are taking the brunt, that boys
of how major high street retailers have it easier. But in some ways, the
have promoted, and then on second messages we are sending out to boys
thought withdrawn, clothing, games are just as limiting and restrictive: be
and products for children that are macho, be strong, don’t show your
undoubtedly age inappropriate. There emotions. Hyper-sexualisation of
is a clear role here for government femininity cannot exist without hyper-
to support and promote corporate masculinisation of males. They feed off
responsibility. and reinforce each other.

36
www.cosmeticsurgerybible.com/2007/types- 37
www.b-eat.co.uk/PressMediaInformation#iHn0
of-surgery/breast-enlargement/breast-implants- 38
Zuckerman and Abraham (2008)
10 linked-to-suicide-risk/105


27. Repeated exposure to gender- by the Department for Work and
stereotypical ideas and images Pensions43 shows that Jobcentres are
contributes to sexist attitudes and routinely advertising for vacancies
beliefs; sexual harassment; violence at escort agencies, lap-dancing clubs,
against women; and stereotyped massage parlours and TV sex channels.
perceptions of, and behaviour toward, We are seeing the normalisation of
men and women.39 Although sexual these trades as viable career choices.
objectification is but one form of The fact that both within celebrity and
gender oppression, it is one that popular culture women are habitually
factors into – and perhaps enables – heralded as successful and celebrated
a host of other oppressions women for their sex appeal and appearance
face, ranging from employment – with little reference to their intellect
discrimination and sexual violence to or abilities – sends out a powerful
the trivialisation of women’s work and message to young people about what
accomplishments.40 is of value and what they should
focus on.
Mainstreaming of the sex
industry Sexualisation and
28. With the ubiquity of sexualisation
and the increasing pornification of
violence
society has come the mainstreaming 30. Research has shown that adults –
of the sex industry, as exemplified including women44 – who viewed
by the proliferation of lap-dancing sexually objectifying images of women
clubs. Sexualisation – and the in the mainstream media were more
commodification of women and girls – likely to be accepting of violence.45
is now so ingrained in our culture that The evidence gathered in the
glamour modelling and lap-dancing are review suggests a clear link between
widely viewed not only as acceptable consumption of sexualised images, a
but in some cases aspirational.41 tendency to view women as objects
and the acceptance of aggressive
29. Sexualisation is tied to economic attitudes and behaviour as the norm.
markets in the forms of beauty and Both the images we consume and the
sex industries, that both open and way we consume them are lending
restrict the breadth and variety of credence to the idea that women are
identities and ambitions open to there to be used and that men are
young women. A growing number of there to use them.
girls are setting their sights on careers
that demand a ‘sexy’ image. Surveys 31. There is a significant amount of
have found for instance that a high evidence linking stereotypical attitudes
proportion of young women in the to women’s sexuality and sexist beliefs
UK aspire to work as ‘glamour models’ with aggressive sexual behaviour.46
or lap-dancers.42 A report released
43
www.parliament.uk/deposits/
depositedpapers/2008/DEP2008-3155.doc
39
Kilbourne and Lazarus (1987); Lazier-Smith 44
Johnson Adams et al. (1995)
(1989); UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural 45
Kalof (1999); Lanis and Covell (1995)
Organisation (1980) 46
Dean and Malamuth (1997); Malamuth and
40
Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) Briere (1986); Malamuth and Donnerstein
41
Coy (2009), Coy and Garner (in press) (1982, 1984); Murnen, Wright and Kaluzny
42
Deeley (2008) (2002); Osland, Fitch and Willis (1996); Spence,
Losoff and Robbins (1991); Truman, Tokar and 11
Fischer (1996); Vogel (2000)


A recent Home Office survey found female body, and the pressure on boys
that 36 per cent of people believed to conform to a hyper-masculine ideal,
that a woman should be held wholly are having a very real effect on young
or partly responsible for being sexually people’s day-to-day lives.
assaulted or raped if she was drunk,
while 26 per cent believed a woman 34. There is growing evidence from
should accept at least part of the educational and social scientists that
blame for an attack if she was out girls are facing increasing sexism
in public wearing sexy or revealing in the playground and classroom.
clothes.47 Researchers have indicated that cases
of sexual harassment and forms
Young people, sexual of gendered and sexualised name
calling and bullying may be on the
bullying and violence rise in both primary and secondary
32. The shocking results of a recent survey schools.48, 49
carried out by the NSPCC show
that for many young people, violence Pornography and sexual
within relationships is commonplace – aggression
one in three teenage girls aged 13–17
had been subjected to unwanted 35. Pornography shapes young people’s
sexual acts while in a relationship, sexual knowledge but does so by
and one in four had suffered physical portraying sex in unrealistic ways.
violence. And, although both sexes are The nature of online pornography is
experiencing partner violence, girls are changing: it is increasingly dominated
suffering more as a result. A significant by themes of aggression, power and
proportion of the girls surveyed stated control, blurring the lines between
that the violence had seriously affected consent, pleasure and violence.50
their welfare; for boys, there appeared 36. Advances in technology are making
to be few consequences. NSPCC’s pornography more and more
Head of Child Protection Awareness accessible to children and young
Chris Cloke has described this as people. There is consistent and
evidence of a ‘culture of confusion reliable evidence that exposure to
about what is acceptable among pornography is related to male sexual
girls and boys living in today’s highly aggression against women. Prolonged
sexualised landscape.’ exposure increases the likelihood
33. In gangs, rape and sexual assault is of consuming material that depicts
increasingly becoming the weapon either potentially ‘harmful’ or, what
of choice. Assaulting a girl is used the UK government labels, ‘extreme’51
not only to assert power over the sexual behaviours such as violent
girl herself, but also over those who sex, sadomasochism and bestiality.
associate with her. And although gangs High pornography use is not in itself
make up only a small part of society in an indicator of high risk for sexual
the UK, the use of violence as a means aggression. However, adults who
to punish and control is not just in the
domain of sub-cultures – as shown by 48
Duncan (2004); Renold, (2003); Ringrose (2008)
the results from the NSPCC survey 49
Please note, this figure does not include the
on teen partner violence. It seems that total number of permanent exclusion in primary
notions of power and control over the and special school settings
50
Hanson and Tyd´en (2005); Dines (2008)
12
47
Home Office (2009) 51
McGlynn, Ward and Rackley (2009)


are already predisposed to violent can be devastating, ranging from
activity and who also score high for post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety
pornography use are much more likely and depression, to sexual dysfunction,
to engage in sexual aggression.52 suicide and self-mutilation. It affects a
significant number of children in the
37. There has been a marked increase UK – estimated at over 2 million –
in the number of sites that infantilise although the vast majority of child
women. Adults exposed to ‘barely sexual abuse goes unreported.54
legal’ or virtual child pornography The majority of those who display
make stronger links between youth sexually harmful behaviour are actually
and sexuality than adults exposed adolescent males, with 25-40 per cent
to materials featuring older-looking of all alleged sexual abuse involving
models. They are also more likely young perpetrators.55
to associate sex and sexuality with
subsequent non-sexual depictions of 39. An issue of concern is that the
minors.53 When girls are dressed to sexualisation of girls is contributing to
resemble adult women, people may a market for child abuse images (often
associate adult motives and even a referred to as ‘child pornography’
sense of adult responsibility onto the in the media) or sex with children.
child. Depicting young girls dressed The fact that young girls are styling
or made up as sexually mature older themselves in overtly sexually
women may serve to normalize provocative ways for other young
abusive practices such as child abuse people’s consumption – whether this
or sexual exploitation. be on social networking sites or via
photographs sent by email or mobile
Child abuse and sexual phones – makes them potentially
exploitation vulnerable. Young people themselves
38. Child sexual abuse lies at the are now producing and swapping what
extreme end of the spectrum of is in effect ‘child pornography’ – a fact
consequences of sexualisation. The borne out by the growing numbers of
psychological effects of sexual abuse adolescents that are being convicted
for possession of this material.56

54
Cawson et al. (2000)
55
www.nspcc.org.uk/WhatWeDo/MediaCentre/
MediaBriefings/Policy/media_briefing_sexually_
52
Malamuth, Addison and Koss (2000) harmful_behaviour_wda33252.html
53
Paul and Linz (2008) 56
Carr (2004) 13


Conclusion
40. There is broad agreement from 41. Sexualisation is a profoundly
researchers and experts in health important issue that impacts
and welfare that sexualising children individuals, families and society as
prematurely places them at risk a whole. Unless sexualisation is
of a variety of harms.57 However, accepted as harmful, in line with the
what we need is further empirical evidence presented in this report,
evidence in the form of large scale and similar reports from the US and
longitudinal studies that will look Australia, we will miss an important
in detail at the effects on boys and opportunity here: an opportunity to
girls of living in a sexualised culture broaden young people’s beliefs about
across their development. Many of where their value lies; to think about
the mechanisms that have been cited strategies for guiding children around
as disseminating hyper-sexualised sexualisation and objectification;
ideals to children are a consequence and to create new tools and spaces
of recent advancements in media for young people to develop and
and technology. Only now are we explore their sexuality in their own
beginning to see a concerted effort time and in their own way.
by psychologists and other social
scientists to address this issue.

Recommendations for schools. New SRE resource materials
should be made available for teachers
Education and schools
who work with children with special
1) All school staff to have training on education needs and learning difficulties.
gender equality. Specialist training should
4) Schools to ensure that all incidents
be given to those who teach Personal,
of sexual bullying are recorded and
Social, Health and Economic (PSHE)
reported separately to other forms of
education and citizenship.
bullying.
2) The Department for Children, Schools
5) New practical ‘How To’ guidance on
and Families (DCSF) to issue statutory
tackling sexualisation is disseminated to
guidance to schools to promote a ‘whole
all schools.
school’ approach to tackling gender
inequality, sexual and sexist bullying and 6) Primary schools should make specific
violence against women and girls. reference to the influence of the media
on body image and personal identity
3) References on sexualisation, gender
within a new programme of study on
stereotypes and pornography to be
‘Understanding Physical Development,
included in DCSF’s revised Sex and
Health and Wellbeing’.
Relationships Education (SRE) guidance

57

14
57
APA (2007); Coy (2009); Malamuth (2001); Tankard-Reist (2010)


Recommendations (cont.) 16) One-to-one confidential help
in school/college from a trained
7) A module on gender equality,
professional such as a psychologist to be
sexualisation and sexist/sexual bullying
made available to every child and young
be developed as part of the DCSF’s
person.
Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning
(SEAL) programme. Media and awareness-raising
8) Media literacy should be taught not 17) A national campaign to be launched
only through PSHE education but also to address the issue of teenage
through English, drama, the arts, history relationship abuse, including a specific
and citizenship. pack for primary and secondary schools
so that they can build on issues arising
9) More investment in youth workers to
from the campaign.
enable them to work with young people
outside of mainstream education around 18) A working group of high profile
the issues of sexuality, sexist and sexual women in media together with academics
bullying and gender equality. should be set up to monitor and address
gender inequality in the media.
10) The UK Council for Child Internet
Safety (UKCCIS) to further develop its 19) The establishment of a media award
current online resource centre where that promotes diverse, aspirational and
parents can access internet safety advice. non-sexualised portrayals of young people.
11) Digital literacy to be made a 20) The government to launch an
compulsory part of the national curriculum online ‘one-stop-shop’ to allow the
for children from the age of five. public to voice their concerns regarding
irresponsible marketing which sexualises
12) The government should work with
children with an onus on regulatory
internet service providers to block
authorities to take action. The website
access to pro-anorexia (‘pro-ana’) and
could help inform future government
pro-bulimia (‘pro-mia’) websites.
policy by giving parents a forum to
13) A schools campaign to be developed raise issues of concern regarding the
which promotes positive role models sexualisation of young people.
for young men and young women and
21) Information on body image, self-
challenges gender stereotypes.
esteem, eating disorders and e-safety
14) Schools should encourage girls to to be included in the government’s
value their bodies in terms of their physical proposed ‘Positive Parenting’ booklets
ability. This should be linked to the work of for parents of older children.
the 2012 ‘Get Set’ education programme.
22) The government should support
15) Local Authorities must be the Adversing Standards Agency
accountable for treating victims of child (ASA) to take steps to extend the
sexual abuse and ensure that specialist existing regulatory standards to include
services receive adequate funding for commercial websites.
the treatment of children who have
been abused.

15


Recommendations (cont.) and retailers to encourage corporate
responsibility with regard to sexualised
23) The introduction of a system of
merchandise. Guidelines should be
ratings symbols for photographs to
issued for retailers following consultation
show the extent to which they have
with major clothing retailers and parents’
been altered. This is particularly critical in
groups.
magazines targeting teen and pre-teen
audiences. 31) The existing voluntary code for
retailers regarding the placements of
24) The content of outdoor
‘lads’ mags’ should be replaced by a
advertisements to be vetted by local
mandatory code. ‘Lads’ mags’ should be
authorities as part of their gender
clearly marked as recommended for sale
equality duty to ensure that images
only to persons aged 15 and over.
and messages are not offensive on the
grounds of gender. 32) The government overturns its
decision to allow vacancies for jobs in
25) Broadcasters are required to ensure
the adult entertainment industry to be
that music videos featuring sexual posing
advertised by Jobcentre Plus.
or sexually suggestive lyrics are broadcast
only after the ‘watershed.’ Research
26) The current gap in the regulatory 33) A new academic periodical to be
protection provided by the Video established and an annual conference
Recordings Act 1984 to be closed by series should be held focusing solely on
removing the general exemption for the topic of sexualisation.
‘works concerned with music’.
34) Funding be made available for
27) Regulation of UK-based video on research that will strengthen the current
demand services to be strengthened to evidence base on sexualisation. This
ensure that they do not allow children to should include trend research into
access hardcore pornography. teenage partner violence and frequency
of sexual bullying and abuse.
28) Games consoles should be sold with
parental controls already switched on. 35) Clinical outcome research to be
Purchasers can choose to ‘unlock’ the funded and supported to find the most
console if they wish to allow access to effective ways to identify, assess and
adult and online content. work with the perpetrators and victims
of child sexual abuse.
29) This idea should be extended to
‘child friendly’ computers and mobile 36) A detailed examination of media
phones where adult content is filtered literacy programmes should be carried
out by default. out jointly by the DCSF, and the
Department for Culture, Media and
Working with businesses and retailers
Sport (DCMS).
30) The government to support the
NSPCC in its work with manufacturers

16


2. Introduction
Sexualisation is a growing phenomenon: recommendations for research, clinical
from magazines to TV to mobile phones, practice, education and training, policy and
sexualised images and messages are awareness-raising.
everywhere. Journalists, child advocacy
organisations, parents and psychologists It is not the intention of this review to
argue that this is having a damaging enter into a theoretical debate on the
effect on children and young people.56 precise definition of sexualisation (see
This report aims to find out whether Chapter 4). The evidence gathered
this is really the case, and to explore here suggests that the proliferation and
the possible links between exposure accessibility of sexualised content may be
to sexualised images and content and jeopardising the mental and physical well-
violence against women and girls. being of young people in the UK. Our aim
is to focus attention on the need for a
This report was commissioned by the collaborative approach to safeguarding
Home Office Violent Crime Unit as part young people and promoting a healthy
of the Together We Can End Violence transition from childhood to adulthood.
Against Women consultation, launched in This report is concerned primarily with
early 2009. The consultation called for ‘a the rights of the child, and with protecting
fact-finding review into the sexualisation the health, well-being and safety of every
of teenage girls’. This, broadly, is the child in the UK.
review’s remit, although evidence relating
to the sexualisation of pre-teenage Methodology
children and of boys as well as girls has
also been included.58 The report is based on a critical, thorough
and comprehensive desk-based review
The report begins by summarising the of available data on the sexualisation of
background to the sexualisation debate young people. We have drawn on existing
and some of the main theories of how government research and statistics, lobby
young people learn and develop. It goes group publications and academic journals
on to look at the volume and spread of in order to build a comprehensive picture.
sexualised images and content by media
channel and at the possible impact this has Stakeholders have also been invited to
on self-esteem, body image, mental health submit their views on processes and
and personal relationships. It also considers structures relating to the sexualisation
the possible links between sexualisation of young people and possible links with
and violence. Finally, the report suggests violence. Those responding to the call for
evidence included:

58
American Psychological Association Task Force
on the Sexualisation of Girls (2007). Herein
referred to as ‘APA’

17


C. Bankes and I. McGibbon – Gangs, TKAP, D. Glover – Commissioner of Factual
Violent Crime Unit, Home Office Programming, Channel 4
C. Banatvala, A. Marsden – Director of C. Green and H. Elsdon-Smithers –
Standards, Ofcom White Ribbon Campaign
M. Banos-Smith – Womankind D. James-Hanman – Director, Greater
C. Barter – University of Bristol London Domestic Violence Project
D. Buckingham – Professor of Education, K. Iwi – Respect
Institute of Education and Director, Centre P. Johnson – British Board of Film
for the Study of Children, Youth and Media Classification
O. Campbell and L. Taffe – Advertising M. J. Kehily – Senior Lecturer, Childhood
Standards Agency and Youth Studies, Open University
C. Christie – Taskforce on Violence L. Lawrence – Policy Lead on Personal,
Against Women and Children, Social and Health Education, Curriculum
Department of Health Unit, Department for Children, Schools
M. Coy – Child and Woman Abuse and Families
Studies Unit, London Metropolitan S. Levenque and A. Heeswijk – OBJECT
University A. Martinez – Sex Education Forum
F. Crow – Assistant Director, National E. Mayo – Co-operatives UK
Children’s Bureau T. Narducci, Z. Hilton and V. Patel – NSPCC
C. Dawes – Department for Culture, N. O’Brien – Brook Advisory Centre
Media and Sport (DCMS)
T. Palmer – founder, Marie Collins
S. Delaney – Team Manager, Birmingham Foundation
Sexually Harmful Behaviour Team
A. Ramage – Series Producer, Sex
S. Dyer – Beatbullying Education versus Pornography, Endemol
R. Einhorn – NSPCC Sexual Exploitation K. Richardson – Child Exploitation
Service Online Protection Centre
L. Emmerson – Sex Education Forum J. Ringrose – Senior Lecturer, Sociology
C. Firmin – Race on the Agenda of Gender and Education, Institute of
G. Frances, J. Sharpen and F. Mackay – Education
Members of the VAWG Advisory Group K. Sarikakis – Director, Centre for
R. Gill – Professor and Director Centre International Communications Research,
for Cultural, Media and Creative Industries University of Leeds
Research, Kings College, London A. Speechly – Youth Justice Board

18


3. Background and context

“An integrated approach is necessary to
ensuring not only that violence against
women becomes universally regarded as an
unacceptable and criminal violation of women’s
human rights, but also that victims of sexual,
physical and psychological violence receive the
attention and support that they need to be able
to escape and resolve their situation.”59

Violence against women and girls is to protect women and provide support
unacceptable, whatever the circumstances to victims of violence. There are currently
and whatever the context. The UK 31 legal frameworks in place, covering
government is committed to taking action issues including rape and sexual violence;
to further reduce the number of violent domestic violence; female genital
incidents and to counter the tendency mutilation; forced marriage; ‘honour’
for violence to become ‘normalised’. crimes; trafficking; sexual harassment; and
This literature review forms part of a marital rape.
wider investigation into the underlying
causes and impacts of violence against With regard to children, local authorities
women and girls. It sets out to identify and schools are required to work with
how sexualised images and messages may each other and with other children’s
be affecting the development of children services to support the Every Child
and young people and influencing cultural Matters agenda, which sets out five key
norms with regard to sexual behaviour outcomes for children and young people:
and attitudes. 59 • be healthy;
Over the past decade, a number of • stay safe;
government departments have been • enjoy and achieve;
working with voluntary organisations to • make a positive contribution; and
deliver a package of measures designed • achieve economic well-being.60

59
www.un-instraw.org/en/images/stories/Beijing/
violenceagainstwomen.pdf 60
www.everychildmatters.gov.uk

19


Performance against these outcomes is and girls) are increasingly being pressured
measured by a set of National Indicators, into appearing sexually available, and that
which cover key areas relevant to the this pressure is having a negative impact
sexualisation agenda including supporting on both attitudes and behaviours. During
children’s emotional health and reducing the public consultations held by the
the rate of conception for under-18s. Home Office in spring 2009, many parents
expressed concern about the pressure on
Some progress has been made. Over teenagers – and even younger children
the last decade the number of incidents – to appear sexually available and about
of domestic violence has more than the sexualisation of young people and its
halved while the conviction rate has possible links to violence.
risen significantly; however, there is still
much work to be done. Recent research Views expressed in recent surveys suggest
carried out by the NSPCC and Sugar,61 a that violence against women and girls
magazine targeted at teenage girls, found is becoming increasingly ‘normalised’.64
that 45 per cent of girls surveyed had According to a UK opinion poll carried
been ‘groped’ against their wishes. Another out in February 200965 16 per cent of
NSPCC study, this time carried out with people think it is sometimes acceptable
the University of Bristol,62 showed that for a man to slap his partner if she nags
a third of girls aged 13–17 had suffered him, while 20 per cent believe that it is
unwanted sexual acts within a relationship OK under certain circumstances to hit a
and a quarter had been victims of physical women if she is wearing revealing or sexy
violence. These findings form just a tiny clothing. As stated above, the NSPCC/
part of the growing evidence for what Bristol University study66 found that
the NSPCC’s Head of Child Protection experiences of sexual abuse and violence
Awareness Chris Cloke has described within relationships were commonplace
as a ‘culture of confusion about what is among teenage girls.
acceptable among girls and boys living in
today’s highly sexualised landscape.’63 The international
The Home Office context
The issue of sexualisation is raised in a
Violence Against number of international laws, protocols
Women and Girls and initiatives, including the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of
strategy Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
The Together We Can End Violence (1979), the Beijing Platform for Action
Against Women and Girls consultation (BpfA) (1995), and the Palermo Protocol
was launched in early 2009. The decision (2000).
to undertake this review as part of the CEDAW calls on all signatory states
consultation reflects the importance of the to take decisive action to tackle the
issue and growing perception that young objectification of women and girls. Article
people (and in particular young women 5 requires that measures are put in place
to modify the social and cultural patterns
61
Published in Sugar magazine, 23 May 2006
62
Barter, McCarry, Berridge and Evans (2009)
64
63
NSPCC press release, 22 May 2006 www.
nspcc.org.uk/whatwedo/mediacentre/
65
www.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/violence-
pressreleases/22_may_2006_unwanted_sexual_ against-women-poll?view=Binary
20 experiences_wdn33559.html 66


of men and women with a view to The American Psychological Association
eliminating prejudices and practices based (APA) Taskforce’s report on the
on the idea of the inferiority or superiority Sexualisation of Girls, published in 2007,
of either sex and/or on stereotyped roles explores how sexualisation is affecting
for men and women. CEDAW also states young girls cognitively and emotionally,
that the sexual objectification of women and impacting on their ability to develop
plays a role in maintaining inequality a healthy sexual self-image.67 In 2008, the
between the sexes, and has repeatedly Standing Committee on Environment,
identified links between the portrayal Communications and the Arts for the
of women as sex objects by the media Australian Senate published its report
and the sex industry and attitudes that on the Sexualisation of children in the
underpin violence and discrimination contemporary media.68
against women.
More recently, a French parliamentary
Strategic Objective J2 of the Beijing campaign, spearheaded by Valérie Boyer
Platform for Action calls for all states to MP, has called for all digitally enhanced
tackle unbalanced portrayals and the photographs to be printed with an
projection of negative and degrading attached health warning. Similarly, the
images of women in the media. Article 9 Real Women campaign, led by UK MP
of the Palermo Protocol requires states Jo Swinson, aims to encourage the
to discourage the demand that fosters public to challenge and complain about
all forms of exploitation (particularly of misleading or untruthful advertising,
women and children) which may lead including adverts featuring airbrushed
to trafficking. images, to the relevant authorities.
Finally, a report on sexualised goods aimed
at children was recently undertaken by the
Scottish Government.

67
APA (2007)
68
Australian Parliament, Standing Committee on
Environment, Communications and the Arts
(2008) 21


4. What is sexualisation and
why does it matter?
“It is important to analyse cultural
representations of gender roles, sexuality and
relationships and ask what specific values
are being promoted and if these are having a
negative impact on child development. Key
questions include the impact on children... of
stereotyped images of passivity and sexual
objectification... the long term impacts of
early exposure to adult sexual themes and
the ways in which cultural exposure impacts
on parents’ roles in protecting and educating
children around sexuality in a developmentally
appropriate way.”69

Introduction
The world is saturated by more images to the extent to which such stereotypes
today than at any other time in our have become ‘normalised’ that to object
modern history. Behind each of those is often to be accused of lacking a sense
images lies a message about expectations, of humour and proportion. As one
values and ideals. Images present and young teenager told me, “Girls call each
perpetuate a world where women are other names like ho and slag but its not
revered – and rewarded – for their always serious, sometimes it’s just for fun,
physical attributes and can put pressure just a way to tease each other or even
on both girls and boys to emulate as a compliment to tell a friend that she
polarized gender stereotypes from a looks hot or sexy”.70
younger and younger age. It is testament
6970

69
Newman, The Psychological and Developmental Impact of Sexualisation on Children.
Quoted inTankard Reist (2010)
22 70
Evidence provided in a focus group, held as part of the Review (2009)


Introduction (cont.)
Attitudes thought to have been adolescents are highly susceptible to the
eradicated by the gender equality images and messages they see and hear
movement have somehow become around them particularly when, as is
acceptable again. Suddenly, it seems, it’s increasingly the case, they are accessing
OK to call a woman a ‘bird’ or to have those images and messages alone.
her posing semi-naked on the cover of a
The following chapter examines the
mainstream magazine, suddenly it’s cute
various ways in which sexualisation
and funny for little girls to sing along to
can be defined and how it differs from
misogynistic lyrics of songs, as long as
healthy sexual development. It then goes
long as it’s done for the sake of a bit of
on to examine how children and young
simple harmless fun.
people develop, providing an overview
However, many researchers, clinicians and of some of the key theories of learning
educators agree that the ramifications and development. Finally, it looks at how
of this kind of ‘fun’ are far from harmless. those theories operate in practice; that
The evidence collected in this report is, at how and why sexualisation may
suggests these developments are having be having an impact on children and
a profound impact, particularly on young people.
girls and young women. Children and

What is sexualisation? indiscriminately apply the notion of
sexualisation so that any expression of
“...in the current environment, teen girls sexuality by children is seen as wrong or
are encouraged to look sexy, yet they problematic.
know little about what it means to be
sexual, to have sexual desires and to The idea that sexualisation is increasingly
make rational and responsible decisions prevalent throughout our culture has
about pleasure and risk within intimate been gaining momentum since the late
relationships that acknowledge their 1990s and is now regularly discussed
own desires.”71 by academics and researchers. The
consensus seems to be that the most
Healthy sexuality is an important obvious manifestation, the dissemination
component of both physical and mental of sexualised visual imagery, while
health. When based on mutual respect important in its own right, is part of a
between consenting partners, sex fosters wider phenomenon: the emergence in
intimacy, bonding and shared pleasure.72 the UK of a ‘pornified’ culture73 and the
Sexualisation, by contrast, is the imposition encroaching of pornography into many
of adult sexuality on to children and young spheres of everyday life.74 Although
people before they are capable of dealing some75 interpret this as a sign of cultural
with it, mentally, emotionally or physically. maturity and of the democratisation of
It does not apply to self-motivated the visual field, a more widely held view76
sexual play, nor to the dissemination of
age-appropriate material about sexuality.
We should be careful that we do not 73
Paul (2005)
74
McNair (2002)
71
Tolman (2002) 75
McNair (2002)
72
Satcher (2001) 76
McNair (2002); Paul (2005) 23


is that the ‘sexualisation of culture’77 is a First, the volume of sexualised images
sign of cultural degradation.78 To enter and the extent to which they impinge on
into this debate is beyond our remit; everyday life are significantly greater than
rather, our concern is to map out, through they were as recently as two decades ago.
clear analysis of the empirical research Public spaces are saturated with sexualised
literature, the possible links between the images and messages.80 As a result, they
sexualisation of culture and gendered and are visible to everyone, including children
sexualised violence. and young people who may not have
the maturity to rationalise and put what
Broadly, those academics who accept they are seeing into context. At the same
the phenomenon of sexualisation time, these images and messages are also
approach it in two ways. On the one becoming more explicit. Increasingly, it
hand, so-called ‘mainstream sexualisation’ seems, there is a blurring between the
describes the democratisation of sex ‘mainstream’ media, whether in the form
and sexuality and the breaking down of of billboard posters, magazine covers,
binary oppositions (for example, male/ music videos, fashion shoots or film trailers,
female or heterosexual/homosexual). On and the world of pornography.
the other, there is the commercialisation
of sexuality which may well involve the Second, because of the proliferation of
appropriation of feminist terminology visual images, ‘social classifiers’ such as
such as ‘empowerment’, ‘equality’ and ‘girl gender, class, race and age are being used
power’. Arguably, this serves to reinforce to present exaggerated constructions of
the dominant male gaze, by ensuring that femininity and masculinity. The resulting
female sexual expression only gains validity caricatures – the big-breasted blonde
under the surveillance of men; something bimbo, the ‘dirty old man’ – are defined
that may be leading to increases in solely by their sexual attributes, attitudes
sexualised violence among young people.79 or behaviours.81 In the case of the blonde
bimbo, too, there is a strong link between
Understanding the current apparent sexually availability and validation;
phenomenon of sexualisation the ‘right’ physical attributes and the
willingness to submit to male desires are a
The term ‘sexualisation’ is used to describe
‘passport’ to acceptance, money and fame.
a number of trends in the production and
consumption of contemporary culture; the Third, children are increasingly being
common denominator is the use of sexual portrayed in an ‘adultified’ way while,
attributes as a measure of a person’s conversely, adult women are being
value and worth. Although sexualised infantilised.82 This leads to a blurring of
images have featured in advertising and the lines between sexual maturity and
communications since mass media first immaturity. This is having the effect of
emerged, the current phenomenon of sexualising girlhood and legitimising the
sexualisation differs from what has gone notion that children can be related to as
before in three important regards. sexual objects.

77
Gill (2009); Zurbriggen et al. (2007); McNair 80
McNair (2002)
(2002); Paul (2005); Rush and La Nauze (2006) 81
Paasonen (2007)
78
Hitchens (2002); Paul (2005) 82
Evidence provided to the review by
24
79
Barter, McCarry, Berridge and Evans (2009) Dr K. Sarikakis (2009)

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