A course on scientific writing given by prof. Jaroslaw Rybicki at the Technical University n Gdansk at the University of Firenze October 2012

1. How to write a
scientific paper
in English

2. Let’s begin with the basics…
1. When a tree falls in the forest, but there is no
one to hear it fall, does it make a sound?
Unfortunately, the answer is no.
In a similar vein, a scientific paper is useless,
unless it is received and understood.
When writing a scientific paper we must aim
high – our goal should be to publish it in a
recognized scientific journal.

3. How to achieve this goal?
1. The only way is to write a high-quality paper,
which will convince a potential editor and
reviewer that it is worth publishing.
2. A high-quality paper goes hand in hand with
a high-quality experiment.
3. Writing with clarity and precision should do
the trick – avoid metaphors, similes, idioms
and embellishments.

4. Organization of a scientific paper
1. The IMRAD approach is usually the most effective:
Introduction
Materials & Methods
Results
and
Discussion
2. However, this approach is meant to serve us and
not the other way round.
3. It is worth consulting this approach with the
instructions for authors, available on the website
of the journal.

5. Good title
1. Each word contained in the title is extremely
significant, therefore, it must be carefully
chosen.
2. The title is our label – each word will be the
key to finding our paper.
3. Good title = clear and precise summary of
the paper conveyed in the smallest possible
number of words.

6. Good title
1. Avoid empty words and expressions, such as
studies on, investigations on, observations on.
2. Never begin a title with an article, i.e. a, an,
the.
3. Never end a title with a full stop.
4. The title is not a sentence, it is simpler than a
sentence and doesn’t follow the usual subject,
verb, object arrangement, and thus the word
order becomes extremely important.

7. Word order
1. Incorrect word order can make the title
ambiguous or incomprehensible:
e.g. Comparing human hair before and after
treatment with Atomic Force Microscopy
2. If we are uncertain whether our title is
correct, the safest approach is to contact an
English teacher (e.g. working at our
university) who should be able to verify this.

8. Precision
1. Good title is precise:
 Action of Antibiotics on Bacteria
 Action of Streptomycin on Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
 Inhibition of Growth of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis by Streptomycin
2. Title should almost never contain
abbreviations, chemical formulas, proprietary
(non-generic) names and jargon.

9. Let’s have a brief respite…

10. Authors and addresses
1. Order of the names:
• the first person on the list should be the
primary progenitor of the work (both the
experiment and written report);
• if the division of labour was equal, we can list
the names alphabetically;
• in the past, there was a tendency to list the
head of the group (regardless of their
contribution), now we usually list only active
participants.

11. Authors and addresses
1. Form
• the preferred designation is given name, middle
initial and surname:
e.g. Jeremy F. Richards
• journals do not print degrees or titles
• the addresses should be listed in the same order
as the authors:
e.g. John F. Jonesa, Sarah J. Smithb, and Jeremiah
N. Finesa
a address of Mr Jones and Mr Fines
b address of Ms Smith

12. Authors and addresses
1. Foreign addresses:
• never translate or anglicise foreign addresses
incorrect form:
11/12 Narutowicza Str., Gdansk 80233,
Poland
correct form:
Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland

13. Abstract
1. Is a miniature version of the paper and
should provide a brief (and concise) summary
of the main sections.
2. As with the title, it can very effectively
encourage the readers to continue or
discourage them from doing so.
3. Consists of 1 paragraph and contains no
more than 250 words.

14. An abstract should:
1. define the main objectives and scope of the
paper;
2. describe the methods employed;
3. summarize the results;
4. state (only) the principal conclusions;
5. be written in the past tense (simple past),
because it refers to work done.

15. An abstract should never:
1. give references to the literature,
except in rare cases, such as modification of a
previously published method;
2. contain abbreviations or acronyms, unless
they are self-evident, e.g. DNA, laser.
Abbreviations should be introduced and
explained at first use in the main text;
3. use imprecise language or contain
embellishments.

16. How to make a good impression?
1. A good abstract foreshadows a good paper,
whereas a bad one can ruin the paper’s
chances of ever being published.
2. The language used in the abstract must be
simple, comprehensible and precise.
3. Having written the abstract, we must re-read
every single word and mercilessly cut out
those that add nothing new or important.
The abstract is no place for showing off our
language skills.

17. Introduction
1. A good introduction must supply sufficient
information to allow the reader to
understand and evaluate the results without
needing to refer to previous publications on
the topic.
2. In the introduction, we must clearly state the
purpose in writing the paper, as well as
provide the rationale for our study (i.e. why
this paper is worth publishing).

18. How to write a good introduction?
Step by step:
1. Present the nature and scope of the problem
under investigation.
2. Briefly review the pertinent literature on the
topic.
3. State the selected method (and/or
methodology).
4. List the most significant results.
5. Present the most relevant conclusions.

19. In the introduction:
1. Write in present tense (simple present).
2. Define difficult (specialized) terms and
explain abbreviations used in the paper.
3. Cite only the references which are pertinent
to the problem discussed.
4. Towards the end of the introduction, it is
worth mentioning other papers on the
subject which will be published soon.

20. Remember
1. A good introduction is like a road map, which
quickly and effectively leads the reader from the
problem, through the most important points of
the paper (context, methodology, results) to the
solution – the principal conclusions.

21. Beware of bad introductions

22. Materials and Methods
1. The aim of this section is to give a detailed
description of the subsequent steps of the
experiment, so that a competent person can
repeat it.
2. For results to be of scientific merit, they must
be reproducible.
3. Without the potential for reproducing the
same/similar results, the paper cannot
represent good science.
4. This section is written in past tense.

23. Dos and don’ts
1. A common mistake is to put the results in the
section on methodology. The purpose of this
section is to answer the following question:
What must be done in order to reproduce
the presented experiment?
2. The Materials and Methods section is often
divided into subheadings; when possible,
construct the subheadings so as to match
those in the Results section.

24. Materials
In this section:
1. For materials, provide the exact technical
specifications and quantities and source (or
method of preparation).
2. Sometimes it is necessary to give chemical
and physical properties of the reagents.
3. Avoid using trade names, choose generic or
chemical names (more likely to be known
throughout the world than trade names).

25. Methods
1. Try to describe methods in chronological order.
However, related method should be described
together. The most important thing is to present
the methods in a logical and consistent way.
2. If several methods are commonly employed,
identify your method briefly and cite the
reference.
Make the readers’ life easier:
 cells broken as described in [9];
 cells broken by ultrasonic treatment as
described in [9].

26. Precision
1. Give the exact temperatures, quantities and
times, check twice whether the units are
given correctly.
2. Answer precisely all potential questions such
as ‘how?’ and ‘how much?’.
3. Statistical analyses: discuss the data, not the
statistical methods.
4. Be careful with your syntax
e.g. After standing in boiling water for 1h,
examine the flask.

27. Results
1. This is the most important and often the
shortest section of the paper.
2. The results are the core of the paper,
therefore, they must be presented with due
care and as clearly as possible.
3. This section should contain two ingredients:
• general description of the experiment (the big
picture), which puts the results in context;
• presentation of the data (past tense).

28. Results
1. How to present them?
Give only the representative results and
avoid endlessly repetitive data.
2. How to deal with numbers?
If there are few numbers, describe them in
the text.
Repetitive numbers (only those meaningful)
should be given in tables or graphs.

29. Tables and graphs

30. Tables and graphs
1. External factors and variables: present only
those which are relevant and affect the
results.
2. Statistics: present only those that are
meaningful from the scientific point of view.
3. In the text – do not repeat numbers already
presented in the tables or graphs.
4. Avoid beating about the bush:
 It is clearly shown in Table 1 that A = B.
 A = B (Table 1).

31. Discussion
1. Usually, this is the most difficult section to
write and, at the same time, the most
important one – if poorly written, it can
obscure the true meaning of the data.
2. Most Discussion sections are too long and
verbose.
3. It must describe the meaning and
implications of the paper. Spell it out, never
leave the reader asking: ‘what does this
(really) mean?’.

32. A good discussion:
1. Presents the principles, relationships and
generalizations shown in Results.
2. Points out exceptions, lack of correlation, and
unsettled points – never conceal data only
because they do not quite fit!
3. Shows how the results agree (or contrast)
with previously published work.

33. A good discussion:
4. Presents theoretical implications of the
results, as well as their practical applications.
5. States conclusions (as clearly as possible).
6. For each conclusion, gives the evidence to
support it.

34. Acknowledgments
1. First, acknowledge any significant help that
you have received from any individual.
Also acknowledge the source of special
equipment and materials.
e.g. We acknowledge helpful discussions…
2. Second, acknowledge any outside financial
assistance, such as grants, contracts,
fellowships.
e.g. This work was supported by…

35. 

36. References
1. List only significant, published references.
2. A paper accepted for publication can be
listed, however, after giving the name of the
journal we must add ‘accepted’ or
‘in press’.
3. In the end, check whether all items cited in
the text were listed in the References section
(and vice versa).
4. It’s more efficient to prepare this section
while writing the paper (not afterwards).

37. Reference styles
1.Name and year system:
• references are unnumbered;
• references are listed alphabetically;
• name/s of the author/s and the year of
publication must be given in the text;
• if there are more than three authors add
et al. after the third name (applies to all
reference styles);

38. Name and year system
General formula:
Name/s and initial/s. Year, month and day of
publication. Title of the paper. Abbreviated
title of the journal. Journal No. (Edition No.):
page numbers.
e.g. Wilton P. 1992 May 15. The Toronto Free
Hospital for Consumptive Poor. Can Med Assoc
J 146 (10): 1812-14.

39. Reference styles
2. Alphabet-number system:
• reduces printing expenses;
• references are numbered;
• references are listed alphabetically;
• only reference numbers are given in the text,
unless names or dates are important:
e.g. …as was discovered by Einstein [11].

40. Alphabet-number system
General formula:
Reference number. Name and initial of the
1st author [initials and names of subsequent
authors]. Year of publication. Title of the
paper. Abbreviated title of the journal.
Journal No.: page numbers.
e.g. 1. Jenkins, S.H., and P.E. Busher. 1979.
Castor canadensis. Mammalian Species.
120:1-8.

41. Reference styles
1. Citation order system:
• the most reader-friendly system (quick and
simple);
• references are numbered;
• references are listed in the order in which
they appear in the text;
• it is not a good system for long papers with
many references.

42. Citation order system
General formula:
Reference number. Name/s and initial/s. Title
of the paper. Abbreviated title of the journal
and year of publication; Journal No.: page
numbers.
e.g. 1. Jenkins SH, and Busher PE. Castor
canadensis. Mammalian Species 1979;
120:1-8.

43. Journal abbreviations
Three simple rules:
1. Journal  J. or J
2. -ology  Ø
e.g. Biology  Biol.
Physiology  Physiol.
3. Never abbreviate titles which consist of
one word
e.g. Nature, Science.
Index of abbreviated titles:
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/~mark/ISIabbr/

44. Ethics
1. Plagiarism: originality in science has a deeper
meaning than in other fields, therefore,
plagiarism is treated as theft. When citing
(paraphrasing), give references. Direct quotations
must appear in inverted commas.
2. Self-plagiarism: a primary research paper can
be published in a primary journal only once:
repetitive publication of the same data, ideas,
results in different journals (foreign or national)
is considered unethical.

45. Hence
This lecture was prepared on the basis
of the following publication:
Roberta A. Day
How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper
(5th edition).
It is definitely worth reading!