2. Objectives
ī¨ Review A & P of ear, nose and throat
ī¨ Ear, Nose and Throat examination
ī¨ Common diseases/conditions of Ear, Nose, and
Throat
ī¨ Perform ear irrigation
2
3. REVIEW OF A & P
The Ear
ī¨ Hearing and Balance
ī¨ Three parts outer, middle, and inner ear
ī¨ The outer & middle ear; hearing
ī¨ The inner ear; both hearing & equilibrium
ī¨ Receptors for hearing & balance
3
10. Paranasal Sinuses
ī¨ Lighten the skull.
ī¨ Warm and moisten the air.
ī¨ Resonance chambers for speech.
ī¨ Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity
10
11. Examination of ENT
THE EAR
ī¨ Inspection: deformities, lesions, and discharge,
as well as size, symmetry, and angle of
attachment to the head
ī¨ Direct palpation: pain, tenderness
ī¨ Otoscopic Exam: ext. auditory canal & tympanic
membrane:- redness, perforation, exudate, blood,
masses
ī¨ Gross Auditory Acuity: one ear at a time;
Voice/Whisper, Weber and Rinne tests are done
11
12. Testing Gross Auditory Acuity
ī¨ Voice/Whisper Test: One ear occluded,
examiner whispers softly 1-2 feet away from the
unconcluded ear, out of ptâs sight.
ī¤ Normal: can correctly repeat word.
ī¨ Weber Test: Tests bone conduction.
Vibrating tuning fork placed on the ptâs mid-
forehead.
ī¤ Normal: sound heard equally in both ears or as
centered.
ī¤ Conductive hearing loss:- sound heard better in the
affected ear.
12
13. ī¨ Rinne Test: Distinguishes btwn conductive &
sensorineural hearing loss.
Examiner places stem of vibrating turning fork on
mastoid process & counts till pt. can no longer hear;
then immediately near the canal and counts till pt.
can no longer hear.
ī¤ Normal: air conduction > bone conduction.
ī¤ Conductive hearing loss:- bone conduction âĨ air
conduction.
ī¤ Sensorineural hearing loss:- air conduction > bone
conduction
13
16. ī¨ Other aspects NOSE and THROAT are
discussed in the video. D:AMREF-NCK e-
learningHead to toe video
assessmentpart2.flv
16
17. SINUSITIS &
RHINOSINUSITIS
DEFINITION
SINUSITIS:
ī¨ Inflammation of nasal mucosa; infectious or allergic
RHINOSINUSITIS:
ī¨ Inflammation of the mucosal lining of the nasal cavity
& paranasal sinuses.
ī¨ Can be Acute or Chronic/Recurrent
INCIDENCE
ī¨ Affects about 13% of adults; 2-3 episodes annually.
17
21. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Cont..
1. Sinuses in direct communication with
nasopharynx
2. Bacterial or viral infection of sinuses
3. Inflammation, (or tumors, polyps, trauma)
cause ostia obstruction
4. Ostia obstruction impede normal air & mucus
flow
5. Mucus stagnates, further growth of bacteria
causing eve further inflammation/ swelling
21
22. MANAGEMENT
DIAGNOSIS
ī¨ Mainly based on Hx. & Clinical Presentation
ī¨ X-ray, sinoscopy, ultrasound, CT, and MRI (chronic
cases)
ī¨ A confirmatory diagnosis is by obtaining cultures
by sinus puncture or endoscopy.
22
23. MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
ī¨ Depends on cause, from Hx & physical exam.
ī¨ Tx. focuses on symptom relief.
ī¤ Most common: Antihistamine/decongestant
īŽ Leukotriene modifiers (Montelukast)]
īŽ Mast cell stabilizer (Cromolyn)
ī¨ Tx. Goal is to shrink the nasal mucosa, relieve
pain, & treat infection (if present/ suspected)
ī¤ Observation without the use of antibiotics
ī¤ Antibiotic of choice: Amoxicillin OR Amoxicillin-
clavulanate
īŽ For Penicillin allergy: Cotri-moxazole (Septrin)
īŽ For Resistance: High dose Amoxicillin-clavulanate;
23
24. NURSING MANAGEMENT and PREVENTION
ī¨ Teaching on self-care is the basis of nursing
Mgt.:
ī¤ Avoid or reduce exposure to allergens/irritants
ī¤ Correct use/administration of meds/ following the
recommended antibiotic regimen
ī¤ Controlling the environment at home and at work
ī¤ Early Tx. & home remedies: saline nasal sprays/
drops.
ī¤ Hand hygiene
ī¤ Signs of complications: headache; neck stiffness;
persistent fevers
24
33. COLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT
ī¨ Treated through the use of supportive
measures:
ī¤ Rest
ī¤ Increased fluid intake
ī¤ Analgesics e.g. PCM
ī¤ Salt-water gargles
ī¤ For bacterial
īŽ Penicillin (Augmentin, X-pen, benzathine)(first-line
therapy)
īŽ Cephalosporins (ceftriaxone)
īŽ Macrolides (clarithromycin)
īŽ Clindamycin
ī¤ Consider corticosteroids e.g dexa
33
34. Indications for tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy.
1. Recurrent throat infections:
īŽ âĨ 7 ep. in 1 yr
īŽ 5 ep./yr. for 2 yrs.
īŽ 3 ep. /yr. for 3yrs.
īŽ âĨ 2 wks of lost school or work
2. Peritonsilar abscess
3. Associated airway obstruction or sleep apnea
4. Malignancy (or suspicion of)-biopsy
5. Repeated attacks of purulent otitis media
Adenoidectomy done if adenoids are concurrently
inflamed
34
36. EPISTAXIS
ī¨ Bleeding from nostril, nasal cavity or nasopharynx
ī¨ Often selfâlimiting but may be severe & life-
threatening
ī¨ 60% of population with at least one nosebleed
ī¨ 6-10% will require medical treatment
ī¨ Bimodal age distribution
ī¤ High Incidence < 10 y/o
ī¤ Second peak: 45-65 y/o
36
37. Anatomic Considerations
ī¨ Bleeding usually arises from the nasal septum, which
is supplied by:
ī¤ Anterior ethmoidal artery
ī¤ Posterior ethmoidal artery
ī¤ Greater palatine
ī¤ Sphenopalatine artery
ī¤ Superior labial artery
ī¨ Anterior Nasal Cavity = Littleâs Area
ī¤ Nose has abundant blood supply that permits it to bleed
easily
ī¤ Kesselbachâs Plexus
ī¨ Posterior Nasal Cavity
ī¤ Woodruffâs Plexus
Internal carotid
External carotid
37
42. Management
ī¨ Assessment
ī¤ Inspect the nose and back of the throat for obvious
bleeding and observe for frequent swallowing
ī¤ Level of consciousness and vital signs to detect signs
of hypovolemia
ī¤ Document allergies & major illnesses
ī¨ Anterior or posterior rhinoscopy
ī¨ Nasal endoscopy
ī¨ CBC-Hb, platelet count etc.
ī¨ Coagulation profile
ī¨ Radiology-X-ray, CT
42
43. Management
First aid
ī¨ ABC
Digital Pressure (Trotterâs Method)
1. Pt sits up
2. Head bent forward
3. Breath through open mouth
4. Pinch over Kiesselbachâs plexus for at least 15-20
min
43
Pinch here
46. Nasal Packing
ī¨ Nasal Tampon inserted horizontally after
lubrication of pack with bacitracin or KY-Jelly and
then allowed to expand after saturation with normal
saline.
46
47. Balloon tamponed
ī¨ Balloon Catheter coated with lubricant & platelet
aggregator.
ī¨ Soaked in water for 30 seconds then inserted into
the nose along the base of the nasopharynx.
ī¨ Cuff inflated with air/water until it provides
adequate tamponade.
47
48. Anterior Packing
ī¨ Pack the nasal cavity with xeroform ribbon
gauze from the floor upwards in an accordion
fashion using a bayonet forceps leaving a four
inch tail on each end out of nares
48
50. Alternative Treatments
ī¨ Surgical Therapies
ī¤ Electrocautery
ī¤ Septal Surgery
ī¤ Arterial Ligation
ī¨ Alternative Treatments
ī¤ Angiographic Embolization
ī¤ Fibrin Glue
ī¤ Laser Therapy
ī¤ Hot Water Irrigation
50
51. Complications of Packing
ī¨ Failure to control bleeding
ī¨ Toxic Shock Syndrome
ī¨ Blockage of Duct drainage
ī¨ Nasovagal Reflex (Controversial)
ī¨ Obstructive Sleep Apnea
ī¨ Airway obstruction
ī¨ Removal can cause re-bleeding
ī¨ Pressure necrosis
51
52. Summary
ī¨ Epistaxis is common complaint affecting 60% of
population at some point in lifetime
ī¨ Key to evaluation is differentiation between anterior
and posterior bleeding source
ī¤ Anterior = 90-95 % (from Kiesselbachâs plexus)
ī¤ Posterior = 5-10% (from sphenopalantine artery)
ī¤ Consider possible causes for epistaxis with recurrent or
difficult to control nosebleeds
ī¨ Non-invasive techniques will stop the majority of
epistaxis (Trotterâs method, cautery, vasoconstrictive
compounds)
ī¨ Difficulty to control epistaxis may require nasal
packing
ī¨ Consider antibiotics while packing in place
ī¨ Posterior nasal bleeds should all be hospitalized
52
53. LARYNGITIS
ī¨ Inflammation of the larynx
ī¨ May be infectious or non-infectious;
ī¤ Acute:- sudden onset.
ī¤ Chronic:- persistent hoarseness.
ETIOLOGY
ī¨ Voice abuse
ī¨ Exposure to dust, chemicals, smoke, other pollutants
(allergic rhinitis)
ī¨ Descending URI. (pharyngitis): H. infuenzae; haemo lytic
streptococci or Staph. aureus.
ī¨ GERD (reflux laryngitis).
ī¨ Exposure to sudden temperature changes,
ī¨ Dietary deficiencies, malnutrition,
ī¨ Immunosuppressed state.
ī¤ NB: Most common cause is a virus. Bacteria are secondary.
53
54. CLINICAL PRESENTATION
ī¨ Hoarseness or aphonia
ī¨ Dry, irritating cough
ī¨ Discomfort or pain in throat
ī¨ Sore throat (worsens in the evening hours).
ī¨ Edematous uvula.
ī¨ Malaise and fever if laryngitis has followed
viral infection of upper respiratory tract.
54
55. COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT
ī¨ Vocal rest. This is the most important single
factor.
ī¨ Avoidance of smoking and alcohol.
ī¨ Steam inhalations e.g. oil of eucalyptus;
soothing and loosen viscid secretions.
ī¨ Cough sedative:- To suppress troublesome
irritating cough.
ī¨ Antibiotics:-with 2Ëinfection; Ampicillin, 3rd gen
cephalosporin
ī¨ Analgesics. To relieve local pain and discomfort.
ī¨ Steroids: laryngitis following thermal or chemical
burns,
55
56. DEVIATED NASAL SEPTUM
ī¨ Top of the nasal cartilaginous ridge leans to the
left or the right, usually causing passage
obstruction.
ī¨ Can result in poor drainage of the sinuses.
ī¨ Alone, can go undetected for years; no need for
correction.
ī¨ Many victims are unaware till some pain, or
complications arise.
56
58. NASAL POLYPS
ī¨ Aetiology
ī¤ Not known
ī¨ Symptoms
ī¤ Nasal Obstruction
ī¤ Rhinorrhoea
ī¨ Treatment
ī¤ Topical steroid medication
ī¤ Surgery
58
59. POST NASAL SPACE CARCINOMA
(NASOPHARYNGEAL CARCINOMA [NPC])
ī¨ Most common ca. originating from nasopharyngeal
epithelium
ī¨ Usually at level of eustachian tube
AETIOLOGY
ī¨ Viral infections âEBV
ī¨ Environmental influences e.g. carcinogens
ī¤ Salted fish with Carcinogenic volatile nitrosamines
ī¨ Hereditary; genetic susceptibility
ī¨ Smoking & alcohol consumption
59
64. CANCER OF THE LARYNX
ī¨ Approx ÂŊ of all head & neck cancers.
ī¨ Almost all are classified as squamous cell carcinoma.
ETIOLOGY/RISK FACTORS
ī¨ Male gender (10:1)
ī¨ Age 60 to 70 years
ī¨ Tobacco use
ī¨ Alcohol use
ī¨ Vocal straining
ī¨ Chronic laryngitis
ī¨ Occupational exposure to carcinogens
ī¨ Nutritional deficiencies (riboflavin âB3)
ī¨ Family history
64
66. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
ī¨ Hoarse; harsh, raspy, low-pitched voice.
ī¨ Persistent cough; pain & burning in the throat
when drinking hot liquids & citrus juices.
ī¨ Lump felt in the neck.
ī¨ Late symptoms: dysphagia, dyspnea, unilateral
nasal obstruction or discharge, persistent
hoarseness or ulceration, & foul breath.
ī¨ Enlarged cervical nodes, weight loss, general
weight loss, & pain radiating to the ear may occur
with metastasis.
66
67. ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSIS
ī¨ Hx. of hoarseness
ī¨ Physical exam: every case of hoarseness
should be examined by in(direct) laryngoscopy;
ī¨ Biopsy (Dx, typing & staging)
ī¨ CT, MRI, & PET scan
Direct
67
69. MED-SURG MANAGEMENT
ī¨ Goals:- cure, preserve effective swallowing,
voice, and avoidance of permanent
tracheostoma.
ī¨ Tx options:- surgery, radio, chemo, or
combinations.
ī¤Radiation âexcellent results in early-stage
69
70. MED-SURG MANAGEMENT
ī¨ Surgical:
ī¤ Vocal cord strippingâused to treat dysplasia
ī¤ Cordectomyâlesions limited to the middle 3rd of
the vocal cord
ī¤ Laser surgeryâTx of early glottic cancers
ī¤ Partial laryngectomyâearly stages
ī¤ Total laryngectomyâstage IV tumor or recurrence
ī¨ Speech therapy: artificial larynx (electrolarynx)
70
80. OTITIS MEDIA
ī¨ Inflammation of middle ear by pyogenic organisms.
AETIOLOGY
ī¨ Common esp. in infants & children of lower socio-
economic group.
ī¤ URTI; Chronic rhinitis and sinusitis
ī¤ Recurrent fevers i.e. measles, diphtheria, whooping
cough
ī¤ Nasal allergy
ī¤ Tumours of nasopharynx
ī¤ Packing of nose or nasopharynx for epistaxis.
ī¤ Cleft palate
80
81. AETIOLOGY
ī¨ Infection is:
ī¤Via eustachian tube
ī¤Via External ear
ī¤Blood-borne
ī¨ Most common organisms in infants & children
are Strep. pneumoniae (30%), Haem. influenzae
(20%) & Moraxella catarhalis (12%).
81
82. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY & CLINICAL
PRESENTATION
Runs through the following stages:
1. Tubal occlusion: Oedema & hyperaemia with
blockage of eustachian tube
ī¤ Deafness (conductive) and earache
2. Pre-suppuration: pyogenic organisms invade
tympanic cavity worsening hyperaemia with
exudate:
ī¤ Marked earache.
ī¤ Deafness & tinnitus (adults); high fever;
82
85. MANAGEMENT
ī¨ Antibacterial therapy:- ampicillin, amoxicillin
ī¨ Decongestant nasal drops:- Ephedrine drops; Oral
Pseudoephedrine
ī¨ Analgesics/antipyretics:- Paracetamol
ī¨ Ear toilet:- dry-mopping or a moistened wick
ī¨ Myringotomy:- Incising the bulging drum to
evacuate pus
Note: All cases should be carefully followed till
membrane returns to its normal appearance; conductive
deafness disappears
ī¨ Tympanostomy tube- for removal of loculated
thick fluid
85
87. Nursing Care/Education
īŧ Recurrent infections increase risk of permanent
hearing loss
īŧ Take full-course of antibiotics
īŧ Pain & fever management
īŧ Control allergies & upper respiratory congestion.
īŧ Avoid blowing or holding nose closed when
sneezing
īŧ Prevent fluid pooling back to the eustachian tube;
-elevate infantâs head while feeding
-donât allow infant to fall asleep with a bottle.
īŧ Avoid swimming or water in the ears (use
87
89. MASTOIDITIS
ī¨ Inflammation of mucosal lining mastoid antrum and
bony walls of the mastoid air cell system.
ETIOLOGY
ī¨ Usually accompanies or follows acute otitis media.
ī¨ Associated with high virulence or lowered host
resistance
ī¨ Children are more affected
ī¨ Mostly caused Beta-haemolytic streptococci
89
90. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
1. Infection + inflammation of periosteal lining.
2. Pus cannot be effectively drained
3. Pus accumulates under tension.
4. Hyperaemia & engorgement causes dissolution of
Ca2+ (hyperaemic decalcification).
5. Destruction of mastoid air cells & cavity; pus-filled.
6. Pus may break through mastoid cortex & on to
surface
90
91. CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
ī¨ Retro-aural pain
ī¨ Fever; persistent or recurrent
ī¨ Ear discharge; profuse & increases in
purulence.
ī¨ Mastoid tenderness
ī¨ Sagging of poster superior meatal wall.
ī¨ Tympanic perforation. dull & opaque
ī¨ Swelling over the mastoid.
ī¨ Conductive hearing loss always present.
91
96. HEARING LOSS AND
DEAFNESS
Hearing impairment is common among older
adults.
TYPES OF HEARING LOSS
1. CONDUCTIVE
īą Occurs in the middle ear
īą Sound cannot be conducted from outer to inner
ear.
Aetiology
ī¨ Impacted cerumen; foreign bodies.
ī¨ Middle ear disease (otitis media)
96
97. 2. SENSORINEURAL
ī¨ Impaired inner ear or vestibulocochlear nerve
function.
Etiology
ī¨ Congenital & hereditary factors
ī¨ Noise trauma during a period of time
ī¨ Aging (presbycusis)
ī¨ Meniereâs disease*assignment
ī¨ Ototoxicity
ī¨ Syphylis, Cytomegalovirus
ī¨ Tuberculosis
ī¨ DM
97
98. 3. MIXED HEARING LOSS
ī¨ Both conductive & sensorineural losses.
ī¨ Surgery can correct conductive loss but
sensorineural loss remains.
ī¨ Able to hear sound but not to understand
speech
98
99. 4. CENTRAL & FUNCTIONAL HEARING
LOSS
ī¨ Problem along the pathway from the inner ear
to the auditory region or in the brain itself.
Note
ī¤ Unable to understand or put meaning to incoming
sound.
ī¤ Positive family Hx of deafness.
ī¤ Functional may be from emotional/psychologic
factors.
ī¤ No organic cause can be identified.
ī¤ Psychologic counseling may help.
99
101. TEST YOUR KNOWLWDGE!
Conductive hearing loss is initially detected by:
a) A negative Rinne test
b) A positive Rinne test
ANSWER: B
Test Normal Conductive loos SN loss
Rinne AC> BC
Rinne positive
BC > AC
Rinne positive
AC> BC
Weber Equal Lateralised to the
poor ear
Lateralised to the
better ear
101
102. RISK FACTORS FOR HEARING
LOSS
a) Prolonged exposure to high-intensity sound
waves.
b) Repeated, chronic ear infections
c) Prenatal problems of rubella & eclampsia
d) Premature birth
e) Ototoxic medications: aminoglycosides,
diuretics
f) Female with family history of otosclerosis
102
103. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
i. Asking others to speak up
ii. Answering questions inappropriately
iii. Not responding when not looking at the
speaker
iv. Straining to hear
v. Cupping hand around ear
vi. Showing irritability with others who do not
speak up
vii. Increasing sensitivity to slight increases in
noise level
viii. Tinnitus
ix. Speech problems: deterioration of present speech
or delayed speech development.
103
105. MANAGEMENT
īą Hearing aids: most effective with conductive loss.
īą Speech therapy
īą Sign language
īą Stapedectomy: for otosclerotic lesions
īą Cochlear implants: for profound sensorineural hearing
loss.
105
106. NURSING MANAGEMENT
1. Teach client how to care for hearing aid
ī¨ Keep the hearing aid dry
ī¨ Avoid using hair spray, cosmetics, or oils around
the ear.
ī¨ Always have extra batteries
ī¨ At night, turn off & open the battery compartment
ī¨ Avoid exposing it to extreme temperatures
ī¨ Clean ear mold part with a mild soap & water
ī¨ Clean any debris or cerumen
ī¨ Have it professionally cleaned every 3 to 6
months.
106
107. 2. To prevent complications after stapedectomy
ī¨ Appropriate pre-op teaching about post-op
activities.
ī¨ Dressing change as appropriate.
ī¨ Assess client for dizziness; maintain safety
measures
ī¨ Position Pt. on side with head of bed slightly
elevated.
ī¨ Instruct client not to blow nose
ī¨ Administer analgesics, antibiotics
ī¨ Instruct that hearing may not improve till edema
subsides.
107
108. 3. Advice on discharge:
ī¨ Keep the ear dry for 4 to 6 week after surgery.
ī¨ Avoid flying for at least a month after surgery
ī¨ Report unusual sensations or feelings in the ear
& any ear drainage.
ī¨ Notify health care provider if vertigo occurs
108
109. ASSISTIVE DEVICES & TECHNIQUES
ī¨ Hearing Aids. Fitted by an audiologist or
speech/hearing specialist. Many types.
ī¨ Speech/lip Reading. Pt. uses speech-associated
visual cues like gestures & facial expression to
help clarify the spoken message.
ī¨ Sign language. It is a visual-spatial language that
involves facial features such as eyebrow motion &
lip-mouth movements.
109
110. ASSISTIVE DEVICES & TECHNIQUES
ī¨ Cochlear Implant. Electronic hearing device that
stimulates inner ear nerves. Used incase of
hearing aids-failure.
ī¨ Assisted Listening Devices. Direct amplification
devices, amplified telephone receivers, alerting
flash systems, infrared amplifying systems, & a
combination of FM receiver & hearing aid.
110
113. Questions?
For your own knowledge READ ON:
1. Hearing aids.
2. Stapedectomy
3. Cochlear implants
113
114. EAR IRRIGATION
ī¨ A routine procedure to remove excess ear wax
(cerumen) or foreign materials from the ear.
ī¨ Too much wax can cause blockage, resulting in
earaches, ringing in the ears, or temporary
hearing loss.
ī Usually painless.
ī Lukewarm water is squirted into the ear canal, by
a machine that squirts water at the right
pressure.
ī This dislodges the softened plug which then falls
out with the water.
114
115. INDICATIONS
ī Foreign body
ī Impacted cerumen; Often works if the plug has been
softened e.g olive oil ear drops.
CONTRAINDICATIONS
ī¨ Previous complications following irrigation.
ī¨ Hx of ear surgery
ī¨ Cleft palate (even if repaired).
ī¨ Current ear infection or within six weeks.
ī¨ Recurrent otitis externa.
ī¨ Current or previous perforated eardrum
115
118. Critical Thinking
A 20-year-old man, a member of a college
swim team, has recurrent external otitisâhis
third
episode in the past 6 weeks. He is being
treated at an ENT clinic.
Devise an evidence-based practice teaching
plan for this patient.
118