CRITICAL THINKING T O O L S FOR T A K I N G C H A R G E OF y 0 l l R L E A R N I N G AND Y O U R L IFE T H I R D e d i t i o n Richard Paul Foundation for Critical Thinking Linda Elder Foundat ion for Critical Thinking PEARSON Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo C H A P T E H 2 EXHIBIT 2.1 Most people have lived their entire lives as unreflective thinkers. To develop as thinkers requires commitment to daily practice. STAGES OF CRITICAL THINKING DEVELOPMENT / Accomplished Thinker (Intellectual skills and virtues have become second nature in our lives) / Advanced Thinker (We are committed to lifelong practice and are beginning to internalize intellectual virtues) / Practicing Thinker (We regularly practice and advance accordingly) / Beginning Thinker (We try to improve but without regular practice) / Challenged Thinker (We are faced with significant problems in our thinking) Unreflective Thinker (We are unaware of significant problems in our thinking) If we aspire to develop as thinkers, the stages all of us go through are: Stage 1 The Unreflective Thinker (we are unaware of significant problems in our thinking) Stage 2 The Challenged Thinker (we become aware of problems in our thinking) Stage 3 The Beginning Thinker (we try to improve but without regular practice) Stage 4 The Practicing Thinker (we recognize the necessity of regular practice) Stage 5 The Advanced Thinker (we advance in accordance with our practice) Stage 6 The Accomplished Thinker (skilled and insightful thinking become second nature to us) STAGE 1: THE UNREFLECTIVE THINKER Are you an unreflective thinker? We all are born—and most of us die—as largely unreflective thinkers, fundamentally unaware of the role that thinking is playing in our lives. At this Unreflective Thinker stage, we have no useful conception of what thinking entails. For example, as unreflective thinkers, we don't notice that we are continually making assumptions, forming concepts, drawing inferences, and thinking within points of view. At this stage, we don't know how to analyze and assess our thinking. We don't know how to determine whether our purposes are clearly formulated, our assumptions justified, our conclusions logically drawn. We are unaware of intellectual traits and so are not striving to embody them. At this stage, many problems in our lives are caused by poor thinking, but we are unaware of this. We don't question our beliefs or our decisions. We lack intellectual standards and have no idea what such standards might be. We lack the intellectual traits but are not aware that we lack them. We unconsciously deceive ourselves in many ways. We create and maintain pleasant illusions. Because our beliefs seem reasona.

1. CRITICAL
THINKING
T O O L S FOR T A K I N G C H A R G E OF
y 0 l l R L E A R N I N G AND Y O U R L IFE
T H I R D e d i t i o n
Richard Paul
Foundation for Critical Thinking
Linda Elder
Foundat ion for Critical Thinking
PEARSON
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper
Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich
Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul
Singapore Taipei Tokyo
C H A P T E H 2
EXHIBIT 2.1 Most people have lived their entire lives as
unreflective thinkers.
To develop as thinkers requires commitment to daily practice.

2. STAGES OF CRITICAL THINKING DEVELOPMENT
/
Accomplished Thinker
(Intellectual skills
and virtues have
become second
nature in our lives)
/
Advanced Thinker
(We are committed to lifelong
practice and are beginning to
internalize intellectual virtues)
/
Practicing Thinker
(We regularly practice and
advance accordingly)
/
Beginning Thinker
(We try to improve but
without regular practice)
/
Challenged Thinker
(We are faced with significant
problems in our thinking)

3. Unreflective Thinker
(We are unaware of significant
problems in our thinking)
If we aspire to develop as thinkers, the stages all of us go
through are:
Stage 1 The Unreflective Thinker (we are unaware of significant
problems in
our thinking)
Stage 2 The Challenged Thinker (we become aware of problems
in our
thinking)
Stage 3 The Beginning Thinker (we try to improve but without
regular
practice)
Stage 4 The Practicing Thinker (we recognize the necessity of
regular practice)
Stage 5 The Advanced Thinker (we advance in accordance with
our practice)
Stage 6 The Accomplished Thinker (skilled and insightful
thinking become
second nature to us)
STAGE 1: THE UNREFLECTIVE THINKER
Are you an unreflective thinker? We all are born—and most of
us die—as largely
unreflective thinkers, fundamentally unaware of the role that

4. thinking is playing in
our lives. At this Unreflective Thinker stage, we have no useful
conception of what
thinking entails. For example, as unreflective thinkers, we don't
notice that we
are continually making assumptions, forming concepts, drawing
inferences, and
thinking within points of view. At this stage, we don't know
how to analyze and
assess our thinking. We don't know how to determine whether
our purposes are
clearly formulated, our assumptions justified, our conclusions
logically drawn. We
are unaware of intellectual traits and so are not striving to
embody them.
At this stage, many problems in our lives are caused by poor
thinking, but
we are unaware of this. We don't question our beliefs or our
decisions. We lack
intellectual standards and have no idea what such standards
might be. We lack the
intellectual traits but are not aware that we lack them. We
unconsciously deceive
ourselves in many ways. We create and maintain pleasant
illusions. Because our
beliefs seem reasonable to us, we believe them with confidence.
We walk about the
world with confidence that things really are the way they appear
to us. We judge
some people to be "good" and some to be "bad." We approve of
some actions and
disapprove of others. We make decisions, react to people, go
our way in life, and
do not seriously question our thinking or its implications.

5. Although we don't realize it, our egocentric tendencies at this
stage play a
dominant role in our thinking. We lack the skills and the
motivation to notice
how self-centered and prejudiced we are, how often we
stereotype others, how fre-
quently we dismiss ideas irrationally simply because we don't
want to change our
behavior or our comfortable way of looking at things.
2.1 Think for Yours ̂
REFLECTING O N YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF T H I N K I N G
M ight you be at the Unreflective Thinker stage of
development? Test yourself by writing your answers to the
following:
I. Describe the role that thinking is playing in your life. (Be as
clear and as detailed as
you can.)
2 What was a recent assumption you made that you should not
have made?
3 What is a concept you recently formed that you previously
lacked?
4 List five inferences you made in the past hour.
5 Name and explain a point of view you sometimes use to guide
your thinking.
6, Briefly describe how you analyze and assess thinking.
Name some intellectual standards you use. Explain how you
apply them.
8. Explain the role of egocentric thinking in your life.
9. Explain what you are doing to try to embody one or two of
the intellectual traits.

6. If you had trouble with your responses in the Think for Yourself
exercise
you may well be at the Unreflective Thinker stage. If so, you do
not need to
'apologize or feel badly about it; most people are at this stage
and don't know
it. Traditional schooling and the way children typically are
reared do not help
people to become skilled thinkers. Often, parents and teachers
themselves are
unreflective thinkers. This is the product of a vicious circle.
Unreflective per-
sons raise unreflective persons. Once you explicitly recognize
that you are at
this stage, however, you are ready to move to the next stage.
And when you
move to the next stage, you may be close to breaking out of the
vicious cycle of
unreflectiveness. To do so requires that we become honestly
reflective—that we
begin to notice some problems in our thinking, that we begin to
recognize that
our thinking is often egocentric and irrational, that changes in
our own thinking
are essential.
Honest reflectiveness leads to healthy motivation to change. It
is functional
and productive. You must not only see problems in your
thinking but also have
some sense of how you might address those problems. You must
become rea-
sonably articulate about what you have to do to improve.
Motivation is crucial.

7. Without a drive to change, nothing much of significance will
happen.
STAGE 2: THE CHALLENGED THINKER
Are you ready to accept the challenge? We cannot solve a
problem we do not own
or deal with a condition we deny. Without knowledge of our
ignorance, we cannot
seek the knowledge we lack. Without knowledge of the skills
we need to develop,
we will not develop them.
As we become aware that "normal" thinkers often think poorly,
we move into
the second stage of critical thinking development, the
Challenged Thinker. We
begin to notice that we often
• make questionable assumptions;
m use false, incomplete, or misleading information;
• make inferences that do not follow from the evidence we have;
• fail to recognize important implications in our thought;
• fail to recognize problems we have;
• form faulty concepts;
• reason within prejudiced points of view; and
• think egocentrically and irrationally.
We move to the Challenged Thinker stage when we become
aware of the
way our thinking is shaping our lives, including the recognition
that p rob lems in
our thinking are causing problems in our lives. We begin to
recognize that p o o r
thinking can be life-threatening, that it can lead literally to
death or p e r m a n e n t

8. T H E F I R S T FOUR S T A K E S o r DEVELOPMENT
injury, that it can hurt others as well as ourselves. For example,
we might reflect
upon the thinking of
• the teenager who thinks that smoking is sexy;
• the woman who thinks that Pap smears are not important;
• the motorcyclist who reasons that helmets obstruct vision and,
therefore,
riding without one is safer;
• the person who thinks he can drive safely while drunk;
• the person who decides to marry a self-centered person with
the thought that
he or she will "change" after marriage.
We also recognize the difficulty involved in "improving" our
thinking. If you
are at this stage in your own thinking, you recognize that the
problem of changing
your habits of thought is an important challenge requiring
extensive and difficult
changes in your normal routines.
Some signs of emerging reflectiveness are that
• you find yourself striving to analyze and assess your.thinking;
• you find yourself working with the structures of mind that
create, or make
possible, thinking (for example: concepts, assumptions,
inferences, implications,

9. points of view);
• you find yourself thinking about the qualities that make
thinking sound—
clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness—even
though you may
have only an initial grasp of how to achieve these qualities;
• you find yourself becoming interested in the role of self-
deception in thinking,
even though your understanding is relatively "abstract," and you
may not be
able to offer many examples from your own life.
At this point in your development self-deception is a distinct
danger. Many resist
accepting the true nature of the challenge: that their own
thinking is a real and sig-
nificant problem in their life. If you do as many do, you will
revert to the Unreflective
Thinker stage. Your experience of thinking about your thinking
will fade, and your
usual habits of thought will remain as they are. For example,
you may find yourself
rationalizing in the following way: " My thinking is not that
bad. Actually, I've been
thinking well for quite a while. I question a lot of things. I'm
not prejudiced. Besides
that, I'm very critical. And I'm not nearly as self-deceived as
lots of people I know."
If you reason in this way, you are not alone; you're in the
majority. This
view—"If everyone were to think like me, this would be a fine
world"—is the
dominant one. Those who share this view range from the poorly

10. schooled to the
highly schooled. There is no evidence to suggest that schooling
correlates with self-
reflectiveness. Indeed, many college graduates are intellectually
arrogant because of
their schooling. Unreflective people are found in all
socioeconomic classes and in-
clude psychologists, sociologists, philosophers, mathematicians,
doctors, senators,
judges, governors, district attorneys, lawyers, and. indeed,
people of all professions.
C H A P T E R 2
In short, absence of intellectual humility is common among all
classes of peo-
ple in all walks of life at all ages. It follows that active or
passive resistance to the
challenge of critical thinking is the common rather than the rare
case. Whether in
the form of a careless shrug or outright hostility, most people
reject the challenge
of critical thinking. That is why some soul-searching is
important at this point in
the process.
.3 Think for Yourself
THE CHALLENGED THINKER STAGE
Work in groups of three. The person whose first name is earliest
in the alphabet will explain the second stage, that of the
Challenged Thinker, to the other two. answering
any questions they might have. Then the other two in the group
will add any features the first

11. student missed and elaborate on the points they think are most
important.
TO IDENTIFY PROBLEMS IN YOURTHINK1NG
See whether you can identify any problems in your thinking.
The best way to do this is to analyze a behavior of yours that
somehow is creating problems, either for you or for
others. Look at your personal relationships, your study habits,
your interaction patterns.
How do you behave when you are upset? How do you act when
you don't get your way? Do
you expect more of others than you expect of yourself?
Consider these questions as start-
ing points for challenging yourself as a thinker. If you cannot
identify any problems in your
thinking, think again.
STAGE 3: THE BEGINNING THINKER
Are you willing to begin? When a person actively decides to
take up the challenge
to grow and develop as a thinker, he or she enters the stage we
call the Beginning
Thinker. In this stage of thinking, we begin to take thinking
seriously. This stage
prepares us for the next stages, with the ultimate goal of
explicit command of
thinking. It is a stage of dawning realizations and of developing
will power. It
is not a stage of self-condemnation but, rather, of emerging
consciousness. It is
analogous to the stage in which people who are alcoholics
recognize and fully ac-
cept the fact that they are alcoholics. Imagine an alcoholic
saying, "I am an alco-
holic, and onlv I can do something about it." Now imagine

12. yourself saying, "I a m
a weak, undisciplined thinker, and only I can do something
about it."
Once people recognize that they are "addicted" to poor thinking,
they must
begin to recognize the depth and nature of the problem. If we
are at the Beginning
Thinker stage' we should recognize that our thinking is
sometimes egocentric. For
example, we may notice how little we consider the needs of
others and how much
we focus on getting what we personally want. We may notice
how little we enter
the point of view of others and how much we assume the
"correctness" of o u r
. thers to S
own. W e may e v e n sometimes catch ourselves trying to
dominate (,-ortr.c
what we wan t or. alternatively, acting out the role of
submitting to o t t i e 0 w"ttich
gams t h a t s u b m i s s i v e behavior brings). We may begin
to notice the extern i
we c o n l o r m uncr i t ica l ly to the thinking of others.
As th inkers t h i n k i n g about thinking, we are merely
beginning to
• ana lyze the l o g i c of situations and problems;
• express clear a n d precise questions;
• check i n f o r m a t i o n for accuracy and relevance; ^
• distinguish be tween raw information and someone's
interpretation o 1 <

13. • recognize a s sumpt ions guiding inferences: ^
• identify prejudicial and biased beliefs, unjustifiable
conclusions, misuse
words, and missed implications;
• notice when o u r viewpoint is biased by our selfish interests.
_
Thus , as Beginning Thinkers, we are becoming aware of how to
dea lAVJ^
structures at work in thought (purposes, questions, information,
interp - ^ ^
etc.). We are beginning to appreciate the value of examining our
thin king
of its clarity, accuracy, relevance, precision, logicalness.,
justifiability, ^
depth, and fairness, but we are still at a low level of proficiency
in these: ^
They feel awkward to us. We have to force ourselves to think in
discipnn ^
We are like beginners in ballet. We feel foolish adopting the
basic posi e V to
don't lee! graceful; we stumble and make mistakes. N o one
would pay
watch us perform. We ourselves don' t like what we see in the
mirror ot o ^ m U S t
To reach this Beginning Thinker stage, ou r values must begin
to shitt. h i l l |
expl< the foundation of our thinking and discover how we have
come ^
and believe as we do. Let us consider this goal in a little more
detail. K e ' .
on some of the major infiuences that have shaped your thinking
(and OU )•

14. 1. You were born into a culture (e.g., European, American,
African, Asian).
2. You were born at some point in time (in some century in
some year).
3. You were born in some place (in the country, in the city, in
the North or
South. East or West). , , t
4. You were raised by parents with particular beliefs (about the
family - * ^
personal relationships, about marriage, abou t childhood, about
obe<
about religion, about politics, about schooling).
5. "You tormed various associations (largely based on w h o
was a round you
associations with people with a viewpoint, values, and taboos).
old
1 you were to change any one of these infiuences, your belief s
y s t e ™ fieids
be different. Suppose vou had been born in the Middle Ages as
a ser 1 in r e i '
of France. Can you see that if you were, virtually all your
beliefs would be ^ &
See whether you can perform similar reflective exper iments of
your
ample, imagine other changes in these influences and then
imaginative
some of the beliefs you likely would have with the beliefs you
actually d o have. You

15. will begin to appreciate how much you, and every other human ,
are a product of
influences over which you. and they, had little or n o control.
Neither you nor they
directed these influences. Their effects, clearly, were both good
and bad.
For example, assume that many of these influences engendered
false beliefs in
us. It follows that our minds right now harbor false beliefs, and
we are acting on
them. Yet, notice that the mind has no mechanism for screening
out false beliefs.
We all carry around in our minds prejudices from o u r culture,
from where we were
born and raised, from our parents, and from our friends and
associates. Finding
ways to locate those flawed beliefs and replace them with more
reasonable beliefs
is part of the agenda of critical thinking. Another way to look at
the forces, ratio-
nal and irrational, that have shaped our minds is in terms ot
modes of influence."
2 . 4 Think for Yourself
PUT TING YOURSELF IN ANOTHER PLACE IN TIME
Imagine yourself in another place in time. Choose a different
century, perhaps a different
country, a different gender, a different socioeconomic group—
in any case, an altogether dif-
ferent set of circumstances in which you might have lived.
Complete the following:
1. The time within which I am imagining that! live is...
2. The details of the situation are (be specific).. •

16. 3 If I had lived in this place in time. I most likely would hold
the following beliefs (about
religion, my country, sexual conventions and taboos, gender
issues, relationships, people
of different races, etc. Again, be specific)...
For example, we think within a variety of domains:
sociological, philosophi-
cal, ethical, intellectual, anthropological, ideological, political,
economic, histori-
cal, biological, theological, and psychological. We ended up
with our particular
beliefs because we were influenced to do so in the following
ways:
• Sociological: Our minds are influenced by the social groups to
which we
belong.
• Philosophical: Our minds are influenced by our personal
philosophy.
• Ethical: Our minds are influenced by the extent to which we
behave in accor-
dance with our obligations and the way we define our
obligations.
• Intellectual: Our minds are influenced by the ideas we hold,
by the manner in
which we reason and deal with abstractions and abstract
systems.
• Anthropological: Our minds are influenced by cultural
practices, mores, and
taboos.

17. • Ideological and political: Our minds are influenced by the
structure of power
and its use by interest groups around us.
• Economic: Our minds are influenced by the economic
conditions under which
we live.
• Historical: Our minds are influenced by our history and by the
way we te
our history.
• Biological; Our minds are influenced by our biology and
neurology.
• Theological: Our minds are influenced by our religious beliefs
and attitudes.
• Psychological: Our minds are influenced by our personality
and personal
psychology.
Reflections such as these should awaken in us a sense of how
little we really
know about our own minds. Within each of our minds is a
largely unexpt
world, an inner world that has been taking shape for the whole
ol our lives,
inner world is the most important fact about us because it is
where we h o -
mines our joy and frustration. It limits what we can see and
imagine It tug S
what we do see. It can drive us crazy. It can provide us with
solace, peac ,

18. tranquility. If we can appreciate these facts about us, we will
find the motiv
to take charge of our thinking, to be something more than clay
m the ha
others, to become, in fact, the ruling force in ou r own lives.
2.5 Think for
1 i-UNG THINKER STAGE.
Work in groups of three. The person whose first name is last in
the alphabet will explain the third stage, that of the Beginning
Thinker, to the other two. answering ai y que^
tions they might have. Then the other two in the group will add
any features the hrs
missed and elaborate on the points they think are most
important.
Lets now consider two lurking traps that can derail the
beginning thinker .
Trap # 1: The temptation of dogmatic absolutism^- believing
that ^ u t h i s
acquired not through reasoning and inquiry but, rather, through
some p •
termined, nonintellectual faith.
Trap # 2: The temptation of subjective relativism—believing
that there are no
intellectual standards by which to judge anything as true or
false.
Both traps promise us easy answers. To advance as a beginning
thinker a n d not
fall into one or the other of these traps requires developing
confidence in t eas
a way of acquiring sound knowledge and insight. The two traps
are mirror m g _

19. of each other. If we become either a dogmatic absolutist or a
subjective reiau ,
we lose our motivation to develop as a critical thinker. A s a
dogmatic a rsoi ,
we end up following wherever our "faith " leads us. As a
subjective relati
will come to believe that everyone automatically acquires "his
or her ov l
3 6 CHAPTER 2
in some inexplicable subjective way. In both cases, there is no
real place for the
intellectual work and discipline of critical thinking. Both render
critical thinking
superf luous and free us from any intellectual responsibility. "
If we avoid these traps, if we recognize how we have been
shaped bv forces
beyond our control, if we discover that skills are available to
help us take charge
of our minds, if we develop some initial confidence in reason, if
we develop some
intellectual humility and perseverance, we are ready to begin
creating a genuine
foundat ion on which we can rebuild our identity and character
as thinkers and
persons of integrity.
The key question is how? How exactly can we d o this? We
shall focus on this
question for the rest of this chapter. In a sense, it is the most
vital goal of the
entire book .

20. 2.6,2.7 Think for Yourself
DISCUSS ABSOLUTISM AND SUBJECTIVE RELATIVISM
Work in groups of three. The person whose first name is second
in the alphabet will explain the distinction between absolutism
and subjective relativism to the other two,
answering any questions they might have. Then the other two in
the group will add any features
the first student missed and elaborate on the points they think
are most important
B E G I N N I N G T O DEVELOP AS A TH INKER
Make a list of some things you can do to begin your
development as a disciplined thinker. Review Chapter I for
ideas. Then answer this question: What do you think the
benefits
would be if you were to take this list seriously?
STAGE 4: THE PRACTICING THINKER
G o o d t h i n k i n g can b e p rac t i ced like b a s k e t b a l l ,
t e n n i s , o r ba l l e t . T h e o n l y w a y t o
move from Beginning Thinker to Practicing Thinker is to
commit yourself to daily
practice in thinking well and design your own plan for practice.
When you do so,
you become what we call a Practicing Thinker.
There are many ways to design practice regimens, some better
than others for
you. For example, you might glance through some of the o ther
chapters of this
book. Each provides suggestions for improving your thinking.
You can use any of

21. these suggestions as a starting point .
You might review the Think for Yourself activities. You might
study the ele-
ments of thought, the standards for thought, and the traits of
mind. You might
analyze Chapter 10, on problem-solving, and Chapter 17, on
strategic thinking.
Think of it this way: Everything you read in this book
represents a resource for
you to use in devising a systematic plan for improving your
thinking. As you move
T U B F I R S T F i n R S T A C E S OF D I V K U H ' M E N T
through the book, routinely ask yourself: What am I learning in
this section or
chapter that I can actively incorporate into daily practice?
If you are like most people, you can discover some practical
starting pomts.
The challenge will be in following through on any that you find.
This is the chal-
lenge in most areas of skill development: People do not usually
follow through.
They do not establish habits of regular practice. They are
discouraged by the
strain and awkwardness of early attempts to perform well.
To develop as a thinker, you must work out a plan that will
work for you, one
you can live with, one that won't burn you out or overwhelm
you. Ultimately, suc-
cess comes to those who are persistent and who figure out

22. strategies for themselves.
Still, at this stage, you probably don't know for sure what will
work for you,
only what seems like it might. You have to field-test your ideas.
To be realistic, you
should expect to experiment with a variety of plans before you
find one that moves
you forward as a thinker.
Guard against discouragement. You can best avoid
discouragement by rec-
ognizing from the outset that you are engaged in a process of
trial and error.
Prepare yourself for temporary failure. Understand success as
the willingness to
work through a variety of relative failures. The logic is
analogous to trying on
clothes. Many that you try might not fit or look good on you,
but you plod on
anyway with the confidence that eventually you will find
something that iits and
looks good on you.
Consider another analogy: If you want to become skilled at
tennis, you im-
prove not by expecting yourself to begin as an expert player, to
win every game
you play, or by mastering new strokes with little practice.
Rather, you improve
when you develop a plan you can modify as you see what
improves your game.
Today, you might decide to work on keeping your eye on the
ball. Tomorrow-, you
might coordinate watching the ball with following through as
you swing. Every

23. day, you rethink your strategies for improvement. Development
of the human
mind is parallel to the development of the human body. Good
theory, good prac-
tice, and good feedback are essential.
A "GAME PLAN" FOR IMPROVEMENT
AS you begin to take your thinking seriously, think about what
you can do consistently to improve your thinking. Because
excellence in thinking requires a variety of independent skills
and traits that work together, you
can choose to work on a range of critical thinking skills at any
given point m time.
The key is to focus on fundamentals and make sure you don't try
to do too much.
Choose your point of attack, but limit it. If you overdo it, you
probably will give
up entirely, but if you don't focus on fundamentals, you will
never have them as a
foundation in your thought.
Start slowly and emphasize fundamentals. The race is won by
the tortoise,
not by the hare. Be a wise turtle. The solid, steady steps you
take every day will
determine where you ultimately end up.
C H A P T E R 2
A GAME PLAN FOR )EVISING E PL N
We have put together a few ideas to stimulate your thought
about a gan plan. There is nothing magical about our ideas; no

24. one of them is essei tial. Nevertheless, each represents a
plausible point of attack, one wa
to begin to do something plausible to improve thinking in a
regular way. Althoug
you probably can't do all of these at the same time, we
recommend an approac
in which you experiment with all of them. You can add any
others you find in th
book or come up with yourself. After you familiarize yourself
with some of th
options, we explain how this game plan works.
1. Use "wasted" time. All humans waste some time. N o one
uses all of his or he
time productively or even pleasurably. Sometimes we jump
from one diversion t
another without enjoying any of them or become irritated about
matters beyon
our control. Sometimes we fail to plan well, causing negative
consequences thr
we easily could have avoided such as spending time
unnecessarily trapped in trafifi
although we could have left a half hour earlier and avoided the
rush. Sometime
we worry unproductively, spend time regretting what is past, or
just stare blankl
into space.
The key is that the time is "spent," and if we had thought about
it and considere
our options, we would not have deliberately spent our time in
that way. So o u r ide
is this: Take advantage of the time you normally waste by
practicing good thinkin
during that interval. For example, instead of sitting in front of
the TV at the end o

25. the day, flicking from channel to channel in a vain search for a
program worth watch
ing, spend that time, or at least part of it, thinking back over
your day and eval uatin
your strengths and weaknesses. You might ask yourself
questions like these:
• When did I do my worst thinking today?
• When did I do my best thinking?
• What did I actually think about today?
• Did I figure out anything?
• Did I allow any negative thinking to frustrate me
unnecessarily?
• If I had to repeat today, what would I do differently? Why?
• Did I do anything today to further my long-term goals?
• Did I act in accordance with my own expressed values?
• If I were to spend every day this way for 10 years, would I, at
the end, h a v e
accomplished something worthy of that time?
Taking a little time with each question is important. It would be
useful to revie
these questions periodically, perhaps weekly, to write your
answers in a j o u r n a
and, in so doing, keep a record of how your thinking is
developing.
2. Handle a problem a day. At the beginning of each day
(perhaps driving t o worl
or going to school), choose a problem to work on when you
have free m o m e n t s
Figure out the logic of the problem by identifying its elements.
Systematically thinl

26. TH E F IKST FOUR STAGES OF DFAP.OI-.MENT
through the questions: What exactly is the problem? How can I
put it into the form
of a question? (See Chapter 10 for a template you might use.)
3. Internalize intellectual standards. Each week, study and
actively bring into
your thinking one of the universal intellectual standards
presented in Chapter 5.
Focus one week on clarity, the next on accuracy, and so on. For
example, if you are
focusing on clarity for the week, try to notice when you are
being unclear in com-
municating with others. Notice when others are unclear in what
they are saying.
When you read, notice whether you are clear about what you are
reading. When
you write a paragraph for class, ask yourself whether you are
clear about what you
are trying to say and in conveying your thoughts in writing.
In doing this, you will practice four techniques of clarification:
(1) stating
what you are saying with some consideration given to your
choice of words,
(2) elaborating on your meaning in other words, (3) giving
examples of what
you mean from experiences you have had, and (4) using
analogies, metaphors,
pictures, or diagrams to illustrate what you mean. In clarifying
thinking, you
should state, elaborate, illustrate, and exemplify your points,
and you will regu-
larly ask others to do the same.

27. 4. Keep an intellectual journal. Each week, write out a certain
number of journal
entries. U s e the following format for each important event you
write about:
• Describe only situations that are emotionally significant to
you (situations you
care deeply about).
• Describe only one situation at a time.
• Describe (and keep this separate) how you behaved in the
situation, being
specific and exact. (What did you say? What did you do? How
did you react?)
• Analyze, in the light of what you have written, what precisely
was going on in
the situation; dig beneath the surface.
• Assess the implications of your analysis. (What did you learn
about yourself?
What would you do differently if you could relive the
situation?)
5. Practice intellectual strategies. Choose a strategy from
Chapter 16 on stra-
tegic thinking. While using that strategy, record your
observations in a journal,
including what you are learning about yourself and how you can
use the strategy
to improve your thinking.
6. Reshape your character. Each month, choose one intellectual
trait to strive
for. tocusing on how you can develop that trait in yourself. For

28. example, if con-
centrating on intellectual humility, begin to notice when you
admit you are wrong.
Notice when you refuse to admit you are wrong, even in the
face of glaring evi-
dence that you are truly wrong. Notice when you become
defensive when another
person tries to point out a deficiency in your work or your
thinking. Notice when
your arrogance keeps you from learning, when you say to
yourself, tor example,
"1 already know everything 1 need to know about this subject "
or, "1 know as
much as h e does. Who does he think he is. forcing his opinions
onto me?"
o CHAPTER 2
7. Deal with your ego. Daily, begin to observe your egocentric
thinking in action
by contemplating questions like these: As I reflect upon my
behavior today, did
I ever become irritable over small things? Did 1 do or say
anything irrational to get
my way? Did I try to impose my will upon others? Did I ever
fail to speak my mind
when I felt strongly about something and then later feel
resentment?
Once you identify egocentric thinking in operation, you can
work to replace it
with more rational thought through systematic reflection. What
would a rational
person feel in this or that situation? What would a rational

29. person do? How does
that compare with what you did? (Hint: If you find that you
continually conclude
that a rational person would behave just as you behaved, you
probably are en-
gaging in self-deception.) (See Chapter II for more ways to
identify egocentric
thinking.)
8. Redefine the way you see things. We live in a world, both
personal and social,
in which every situation is defined; it is given a fundamental
meaning. How a situ-
ation is defined determines how we feel about it, how we act in
it, and what im-
plications it has for us. Virtually every situation, however, can
be defined in more
than one way. This fact carries with it tremendous opportunities
for all of us to
make our life more of what we want it to be. In principle, it lies
within your power
to make your life much happier and more fulfilling than it is.
Many of the negative definitions we apply to situations in our
lives could, in
principle, be transformed into positive definitions. As a result,
we can gain when
otherwise we would have lost. We can be happy when otherwise
we would have
been sad. We can be fulfilled when otherwise we would have
been frustrated. In
this game plan, we practice redefining the way we see things,
turning negatives into
positives, dead-ends into new beginnings, mistakes into
opportunities to learn. Fo
make this game plan practical, we should create some specific

30. guidelines for our-
selves. For example, we might make ourselves a list of five to
ten recurring negative
situations in which we feel frustrated, angry, unhappy, or
worried. We then could
identify the definition in each case that is at the root of the
negative emotion.
Next, we would choose a plausible alternative definition for
each and plan for our
new responses as well as our new emotions.
Suppose you have a roommate who gets on your nerves by
continually telling
you about all the insignificant events in his or her life. Your
present definition of
the situation is, "What a bore! How am I going to last a whole
semester listening to
that brainless soap opera?" Your response might be: "Since I
have to do a required
research project for my introduction to psychology class, I will
focus my project on
the psychology of my roommate." Now, instead of passively
listening to the daily
blow-by-blow description of your roommate s day, you actively
question him or her
to gather information you can use in your psychology paper.
Because you are now
directing the conversation, your roommate is not able to bore
you with the details
of his or her day, and you transform your interactions into a
learning experience.
Another possibility is to redefine an "impossibly difficult class"
into a "chal-
lenge to figure out new fundamental concepts and a new way of
thinking." For

31. example: You redefine your initial approach to a member of the
other sex not in
terms of the definition, "His/her response will determine
whether I am an attractive
T u t : F I R S T F O U R S T A C K S OF D E V E L O P M E
N T
person," but, instead, in terms of the definition, "Let me test to
see if this person is
initially drawn to me, given the way he or she perceives me."
With the first definition in mind, you feel personally put down
if the person
is not interested in you. With the second definition, you
explicitly recognize that
people initially respond not to the way a stranger is but, rather,
to the way the per-
son subjectively looks to the other. You therefore do not
perceive someone's failure
to show interest in you as a defect in you.
9. Get in touch with your emotions. Whenever you feel some
negative emotion,
systematically ask yourself, "What, exactly, is the thinking that
leads to this
emotion? How might this thinking be flawed? What am I
assuming? Should I be
making these assumptions? What information is my thinking
based on? Is that
information reliable?" and so on. (See Chapters 3 and 16.)
10. Analyze group influences on your life. Closely analyze the
behavior that is en-

32. couraged and discouraged in the groups to which you belong.
For a given group,
what are you required or expected to believe? What are you
"forbidden" to do?
If you conclude that your group does not require you to believe
anything or has
no taboos, you can conclude that you have not deeply analyzed
that group. To
gain insight into the process of socialization and group
membership, review an
introductory text in sociology. (See Chapter 11.)
Integrating Strategies One by One
When designing strategies, the key point is to engage in an
experiment. You are test-
ing strategies in your personal life, integrating them, and
building on them in light of
your actual experience. All strategies have advantages and
disadvantages. One plau-
sible way to do this is to work with all the strategies on the
following list in any order.
1. Use "wasted" time.
2. Handle a problem a day.
3. Internalize intellectual standards.
4. Keep an intellectual journal.
5. Practice intellectual strategies.
6. Reshape your character.
7. Deal with your ego.
8. Redefine the way you see things.
9. Get in touch with your emotions.
10. Analyze group infiuences on your life.
As you design strategies to improve the quality of your iife,
suppose you find

33. the strategy "Redefine the way you see things" to be intuitive to
you. Therefore, it's
a good strategy to begin with. As you focus intently on this idea
and apply it in your
life, you begin to notice social definitions within groups. You
begin to recognize
12 C H A P T E R 2
how your behavior is shaped and controlled by g roup
definitions. You begin to see
how you and others uncritically accept group definitions rather
than creating your
own definitions. Notice the definitions embedded in the
following statements.
1. "Tm giving a party"
2. "We're going to have a meeting."
3. "Why don't you run for electionf
4. "The funeral is Tuesday."
5. "Jack is an acquaintance, not really a friend."
When you internalize this idea, you begin to see how important
and pervasive
social definitions are. When you more insightful a b o u t social
definitions, you can
redefine situations in ways that run contrary to commonly
accepted social defi-
nitions. You then see how redefining situations a n d
relationships enables you to
"get in touch with your emotions." You recognize that the way
you define things
generates the emotions you feel. When you think you are
threatened (you define

34. a situation as "threatening"), you feel fear. On the one hand, if
you define a situ-
ation as a "failure," you might feel depressed. On the other
hand, if you define
that same situation as "a lesson or an opportunity to learn," you
feel empowered
to learn. When you recognize the control you are capable of
exercising, the two
strategies begin to work together and reinforce each other.
You then might begin to integrate Strategy 10 ("Analyze group
influences on
your life") with the two strategies you have already
internalized. One of the main
ways in which groups control us is by controlling the
definitions they allow us to
use. When a group defines some things as "cool" and some as
"dumb," members
of the group try to appear "cool" and not "dumb." When the
boss of a business
says, "That makes a lot of sense," his subordinates know they
are not to say, "No,
it is ridiculous." They know this because defining someone as
the "boss" gives him
or her special privileges to define situations and relationships.
As a developing
thinker, you begin to decide which groups you allow to
influence your thinking
and which group influences you reject.
You now have three interwoven strategies: You "redefine the
way you see
things," "get in touch with your emotions," and "analyze group
influences on your
life." The three strategies are integrated into one. At this point,
you can experi-

35. ment with any of the other strategies (which follow), looking
for opportunities to
integrate them into your thinking and your life.
• Use wasted time.
• Handle a problem a day.
• Internalize intellectual standards.
• Keep an intellectual journal.
• Practice intellectual strategies.
• Reshape your character.
• Deal with your ego.