Open sidebar Reproductive Physiology Overview User Reproductive system physiology ChatGPT The reproductive system is responsible for the production and development of offspring. It includes various organs and structures that differ between males and females. In this response, I will provide an overview of the reproductive system physiology for both males and females. Male Reproductive System Physiology: Testes: The testes are the primary male reproductive organs. They produce sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis and secrete the hormone testosterone. Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of each testis. It serves as a site for sperm maturation and storage. Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation. Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands: These accessory glands produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and protects the sperm. The seminal fluid is combined with sperm to form semen. Urethra: The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder and also serves as a passage for semen during ejaculation. Female Reproductive System Physiology: Ovaries: The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs. They produce ova (eggs) through a process called oogenesis and secrete hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. Fallopian Tubes: The fallopian tubes are ducts that connect the ovaries to the uterus. They serve as the site for fertilization, where the sperm meets and fertilizes the egg. Uterus: The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus. It undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle in preparation for pregnancy. Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It contains a small opening called the os, which allows the passage of menstrual blood and sperm. Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the cervix to the external genitalia. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth and also receives the penis during sexual intercourse. Mammary Glands: While not directly part of the reproductive system, the mammary glands in the breasts produce milk for nourishing newborns after childbirth. Hormonal Regulation: The reproductive system is regulated by hormones that coordinate and control its functions. In males, the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes, while FSH promotes sperm production. In females, the hypothalamus releases GnRH, which triggers the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen. LH causes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which produces pro

1. LEARNING THEORY
LIJODI BRENDA

2. Learning
• Acquisition of new behaviour patterns
• Example of simple learning forms include: habituation and
sensitization
• Complex learning forms:classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.

3. Habituation
• Also called desensitization
• Habituation is an example of non-associative learning, that is, there's
no reward or punishment associated with the stimulus
• Repeated stimulation results in a decreased response
• Example a child who receives weekly allergy injections cries less and
less with each injection

4. Habituation
• It allows people to tune out non-essential stimuli and focus on the
things that really demand attention
• Habituation does not always occur in the same way and there are a
number of factors that can influence how quickly you become
habituated to a stimulus

5. Habituation
Characteristics of habituation
• Change: Changing the intensity or duration of the stimulation may
result in a reoccurrence of the original response. So if that banging
noise grew louder over time, or stopped abruptly, you'd be more
likely to notice it again.
• Duration: If the habituation stimulus is not presented for a long
enough period before a sudden reintroduction, the response will
once again reappear at full-strength. So if that noisy neighbor's loud
banging (from the example above) were to stop and start, you're less
likely to become habituated to it.

6. • Frequency: The more frequently a stimulus is presented, the faster
habituation will occur. If you wear that same perfume every day,
you're more likely to stop noticing it earlier each time.

7. Habituation
Characteristics
• Intensity: Very intense stimuli tend to result in slower habituation. In
some cases, such as deafening noises like a car alarm or a siren,
habituation will never occur

8. Sensitization
• Repeated stimulation results in an increased response
• Non associative
• Example a child who is afraid of spiders feels more anxiety each time
he encounters a spider
• For example, the sound of a car backfiring might sound like a gunshot
to a war veteran, and the veteran may drop to the ground in
response, even if there is no threat present.

9. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
▶ Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 – February 27, 1936)
▶ Famous Russian physiologist.
▶ Classical conditioning - a type of learning in which an organism learns to
connect or associate, stimuli.

10. Classical conditioning
• In classical conditioning, a natural or reflexive response (behavior) is
elicited by a learned stimulus (a cue from an internal or external
event). This type of learning is called associative learning
• The hippocampus is particularly important in associative learning.
• The cerebellum participates in classical conditioning, specifically in
associations involving motor skill

11. Classical conditioning
Elements in classical conditioning
• Two types of stimuli and two types or response
• An unconditioned stimulus is something that automatically, without having
to be learned, produces a response (e.g., the odour of food).
• An unconditioned response is a natural, reflexive behaviour that does not
have to be learned (e.g., salivation in response to the odour of food).
• A conditioned stimulus is something that produces a response following
learning (e.g., the sound o the lunch bell).
• A conditioned response is a behaviour that is learned by an association
made between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (e.g.,
salivation in response to the lunch bell)

12. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus (NS) that eventually elicits
a conditioned response after being associated with the UCS.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that automatically produces a response without
any prior learning.
(Food was the UCS in Pavlov‟s esperiment)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
An unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the
UCS. (the dog‟s salivation in response to food was the UCR)
Conditioned Response(CR)

14. 1. Acquisition : Forming New Responses.
▶ In acquisition, the conditioned response (e.g.,
salivation in response to the lunch bell) is learned.
• Pavlov : acquisition of a conditioned response
depends on the time factor that linked between two
events.
▶ Kamin (1965) : discovered that conditioning is most
likely to occur when the conditioned stimulus (CS)
begins about a half-second before the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and stops at the same
time as UCS.

15. ▶Not every linking of CS and USC will produce
acquisition of classical conditioning.
▶Only stimuli that are,
- SPECIAL
- NOVEL
- INTENSE

16. 2.Extinction : Weakening
Conditioned Responses
▶ A conditioned response (salivation) will disappear
over time when the conditioned stimulus (bell) is no
longer presented.
▶ The response is the result of gradual weakening
and vanishing of a conditioned response.

17. 3. Spontaneous Recovery :
Resurrecting Responses.
▶ The reappearance of salivation which was
extinct after a long period of non
appearance of the bell.
▶ Pavlov‟s observation :
EXTINGUISHED REST RETEST

18. 4. Stimulus
Generalization.
▶ In stimulus generalization, a new stimulus (e.g., a
church bell) that resembles a conditioned stimulus
(e.g., the lunch bell) causes a conditioned response
(e.g., salivation). other stimuli that are similar with
the original stimuli.

19. 5. Stimulus Discrimination.
▶ An individual will not respond the same way as the
original stimuli when they met with a new stimuli
that are similar.
▶ As an example, the sound of the gong compared
with the bell.
▶ On the other hand, if the new stimulus were
quite similar with the original conditioned
stimulus, then stimulus generalization would take
place.

20. What Is Operant
Conditioning?
• Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs
through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through
operant conditioning, an association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

21. Operant conditioning was coined by
behaviorist Burrhus Frederic Skinner, who believed
that the organism, while going about it's everyday
activities, is in the process of “operating” on the
environment. In the course of its activities, the
organism
called a
encounters a special kind of stimulus,
reinforcing stimulus, or simply a
reinforcer. This special stimulus has the effect of
increasing the behavior occurring just before the
reinforcer.

22. The Skinner’s Box at first the mouse
would have just
wondered around
in search for food
and would have
accidentally
pressed down on
the lever whilst
exploring. It would
then present him
with food, and the
mouse would
associate the
pressing of the
lever with the
presentation of
food.
Then it'll know whenever it's hungry to press that lever
because of that conditioning it went through.

23. Skinner used the term operant to refer to
any "active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences"

24. Examples of Operant Conditioning
 children completing homework to earn a
reward from a parent or teacher
employees finishing projects to receive praise
or promotions
a child who lost recess privileges because he
talk out of turn in class

25. Components of Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement
– A kind of stimulus that aims to increase the
strength in behavior due to its consequence
• Punishment
• Any event that causes a decrease in the behavior

26. Types of Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcements
are favorable events that are presented after
the behavior
(Reward Learning)
• Negative Reinforcement
a response or behavior is strengthened by
stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or
aversive stimulus (escape-avoidance learning)

27. Examples of positive reinforcement:
After executing the learning plan, the principal
said “Great job”.
A student answered all the items correctly in the
unit test. The teacher said “ you are exempted in
the periodic test”.

28. Types of Positive Reinforcers
• A. Natural reinforcers are those that occur
directly as a result of the behavior. For
example, a girl studies hard, pays attention
in class and does her homework. As a
result, she gets excellent grades.

29. B. Token reinforcers are points or tokens that are
awarded for performing certain actions. These
tokens can then be exchanged for something of
value.

30. When is positive reinforcement most
effective?
• When it occurs immediately after the behavior
• When the reinforcement is presented
enthusiastically and frequently

31. Negative Reinceforcement
• Examples:
– You leave your house early to avoid being late
– You clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid in a
fight with your roommate

32. When is negative reinforcement most
effective?
• it is most effective when reinforcers are
presented immediately following a behavior

33. Schedule of Reinforcement
• A schedule of reinforcement is a rule stating
when and how often a behavior will be
reinforced.
–This is applicable when you are purposely
trying to train and reinforce an action

34. Types of reinforcement schedules
1. Continuous Reinforcement
the desired behavior is reinforced every
single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is
best used during the initial stages of learning in
order to create a strong association between the
behavior and the response.

35. 2. Partial Reinforcement
the response is reinforced only part of the
time.
Schedules of partial reinforcement:
1. Fixed-ratio schedules
are those where a response is reinforced
only after a specified number of responses.

36. 2.Variable- ratio schedules occur when a response is
reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
3.Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first
response is rewarded only after a specified amount of
time has elapsed.
4.Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is
rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has
passed

37. Punishment
Punishment is a kind of stimulus that aims
to decrease the strength in behaviour due to its
consequence.

38. Kinds of punishment
• Positive punishment
involves presenting an unfavorable
outcome or event following an undesirable
behavior (punishment by application)
Example:
wearing favorite dress to class but
reprimanded by the teacher for violating the
school’s dress code, slapping for bad behavior

39. Negative punishment
• It involves taking something good or desirable
away to reduce the occurrence of particular
behavior. (punishment by removal)
Example:
after getting low grades in her subjects
because of spending more time in texting rather
than in studying, her mother takes her cellphone
away.

40. • Negative punishment is more effective if:
• It immediately follows a response.
• It is applied consistently.

41. THE
END