2. • We are amazingly designed
o structure relates to function
o highly organized
o even the simplest of parts or
actions is incredibly complex
o all parts must act together

3. • We are bilaterally symmetric
o one line divides us into two
mirror image halves
• We are bipedal
o designed to walk upright on
two legs

4. • We are complex, even at our
simplest levels
o Cells = basic structural units of
living things
o Tissues = groups of cells united to
perform a certain function
o Organs = various tissues grouped
together to carry out a function
o Systems = organs working together

5. • Cells
o Comprised of
 membranes – which hold
contents in and control
substances going in/out
 organelles – tiny organ-like
parts that act like machines,
doing the processes of the
cell

6. cytoplasm – jelly-like semi-
fluid environment for the
organelles; allows substances
to be moved around

7. o Types of
 Nerve cells = neurons
 cell body
 dendrites – carry impulses
into the cell
 axon – carries impulse
away from the cell

8. Striated (striped) muscle
cells
 Skeletal muscle cells
• voluntary
 Cardiac (heart) muscle
cells
• involuntary

9. Smooth (visceral) muscle
cells
 line the walls of internal
organs, blood vessels,
ducts
 involuntary

10.  Bone cells (osteocytes)
 minerals (like calcium and
phosphorus) and salts make
a matrix that is interwoven
with a protein called
collagen

11.  Red blood cells
 no nucleus
 biconcave disks
 carry oxygen using a
substance called
hemoglobin

12.  White blood cells
 formed in bone marrow and
lymph glands
 form part of body’s defense
against microorganisms
 phagocytosis = cell-eating
• devour “enemy” cells

13. • Tissues
o Types of
 Connective tissue
 Functions: connects,
supports, transports,
protects
 Examples: bone, cartilage,
blood, fat

14.  Epithelial tissue
 Covers organs and lines
cavities --
absorbs, secretes, protects
 skin, lining of digestive
tract

15.  Muscular tissue
 contracts for movement
 Nervous tissue
 conducts electrochemical
impulses
 brain, spinal cord, sensory
receptors

16. • Functions:
o Gives the body shape & support
o Helps the body move
o Protects vital organs
o Produces blood cells
o Stores minerals (calcium &
phosphorus)

17. • There are 2 general divisions of
the skeleton:
o the axial skeleton includes the
head, neck, and trunk
o the appendicular skeleton
includes the arms, legs,
shoulders, and hips

18. • There are a total of 206 bones in
the average adult skeleton
o 29 bones in the skull
 the cranium is the name
given to the group of bones
that encloses the brain
 the mandible (jawbone) is the
only moveable bone in the
skull

19. the nasal bones make up the
“bridge” of the nose
 the remainder of the nose
is comprised of cartilage

20. o 26 bones in the vertebral
column
 7 cervical vertebrae in the
neck
 12 thoracic vertebrae which
connect to the ribs
 5 lumbar vertebrae of the
lower back

21.  the sacral and coccyx
vertebrae are fused groups of
vertebrae
 the coccyx is sometimes
called the “tailbone”
 there are 4 curves in the
vertebral column
 curves increase support

22. o 25 bones in the thorax
 sternum (breastbone)
 12 pairs of ribs
 7 pairs connect directly to
sternum by cartilage =
“true” ribs

23. o 64 bones in upper limbs
 clavicle (collarbone) and
scapula (shoulder blade) form
the “girdle” or support for arm
 humerus = upper arm bone
 two bones of the lower arm –
ulna on pinky side, radius on
thumb side

24.  wrist is made up of 8 bones
known as the carpals
 metacarpals = bones of the
palm
 1 for each finger
 phalanges = finger bones
 3 in each finger, 2 in thumb

25. o 62 bones in the lower limbs
 fused bones of the pelvis
make up the girdle that
supports the leg
 femur = thigh bone
 two lower leg bones – larger
bone out front is the tibia,
behind is the fibula

26.  the knee joint is protected by
the patella (kneecap)
 the 7 bones that form the heel
and part of the ankle are the
tarsals
 metatarsals = bones of instep
 arched for support
 phalanges = toe bones

27. • Joints are where two or more
bones join together
o some do not allow any
movement (like in the skull)
o some allow only slight
movement (like between
vertebrae)
o many are freely moveable

28.  ball-and-socket joints = allow
bones to swing in nearly any
direction
 shoulders, hips
 hinge joints = allow
movement in just one
direction
 elbow, knee, fingers

29.  pivot joints = where one bone
rests and rotates on another
 neck
 gliding joints = when two
bones that can move
separately meet
 wrist

30. • Bones are held together by
strong bands of tissue called
ligaments.
o Tendons connect muscle to
bone.
• Cartilage is a tissue that acts as a
cushion between bones and at
the ends of bones.

31. • Functions:
o provides movement
 of skeleton
 of internal materials
o maintains posture
o produces heat

32. • Types of muscles
o Voluntary (skeletal) = controlled
by conscious thinking
o Involuntary (smooth & cardiac)
= function without conscious
thought

33. • Muscle terms
o atrophy = wasting away due to
a lack of use
 muscular dystrophy – a
disorder that causes
irreversible atrophy
o hypertrophy = muscle growth
due to excessive use

34. o muscle ache = feeling of
tiredness or pain resulting from
working muscles
o muscle cramp = sudden muscle
contraction causing severe pain
o muscle spasm = repeated
involuntary contraction of a
muscle

35. o muscle tone = how in/out of
shape a muscle is
o reflex = an involuntary
response to a stimulus
 sneeze, pupil size, blink

36. • Muscle groups
o Facial
 masseter = used for chewing
 frontalis = moves eyebrows
o Torso
 pectorals = chest
 abdominals = 4 sets, protect
internal organs, “core”

37. o Neck & back
 sternocleidomastoid = front
of neck, turns head
 trapezius = back of neck
 latissimus dorsi = large,
lower back muscle

38. o Arms
 deltoid = “caps” arm at
shoulder
 biceps brachii = front of
upper arm
 triceps brachii = back of
upper arm

39. o Legs
 quadriceps = four muscles of
upper thigh (front)
 hamstrings = three muscles
of upper thigh (back)
 gastronemius = calf muscle
 gluteus maximus = large
muscle in rear, for walking

40. • Includes the skin, hair, nails, and
glands.
• Functions:
o protection – against invaders,
UV radiation, and drying out
o temperature regulation
o sensory reception
o vitamin D production

41. o Epidermis = outer layer
 composed mainly of
older/dead skin cells
o Dermis = lower layer
 contains glands, blood
vessels, and nerves
o Subcutaneous layer
 not part of skin, mostly fat

42. o Sweat glands – cool the body
by excreting sweat through
pores
o Oil glands – keep hair and skin
protected
o Hair – protects skin
 shaft = part that is seen
 root = part not seen

43. • Also called the circulatory system
• Functions:
o transport to cells
 oxygen, nutrients, chemicals
o transport from cells
 waste, chemicals
o defense against disease

44. • Structures:
o heart
 just larger than fist-sized
 slightly to left of
center, between lungs
 double pump
 both left and right sides
pump blood

45. • right side pumps
deoxygenated blood to
lungs
• left side pumps
oxygenated blood to cells
throughout body

47.  top chambers, called
atria, receive blood
 bottom chambers, called
ventricles, pump
 valves keep blood from
flowing backwards
 between chambers
 entrance to great vessels

48. o vessels
 arteries carry blood away
from heart
 aorta = largest artery
 veins carry blood to heart
 pulmonary veins carry
blood from lungs

49.  capillaries connect arterioles
(small arteries) and venules
(small veins) at cells
• Pulse = number of heartbeats per
minute
o feel recoil of arteries at “pulse
points”
 radial, carotid, temporal

51. • Functions:
o controls all the functions of the
body
o relays messages back and forth
to different parts of the body
o sensory input

52. • Main organs:
o brain
 biggest part = cerebrum
 85% of the brain's weight
 the
thinking, reasoning, remem
bering part of the brain
 controls voluntary muscles

53.  two halves
• right = abstract things
like music, colors, and
shapes
• left = analytical, helping
you with math, logic, and
speech

54.  right half of the cerebrum
controls the left side of your
body, and the left half
controls the right side
 cerebellum
 at the back of the
brain, below the cerebrum

55.  controls balance,
movement, and
coordination
 brain stem
 sits beneath the cerebrum
and in front of the
cerebellum

56.  connects the rest of the
brain to the spinal cord
 in charge of all the
functions your body needs
to stay alive
• control your involuntary
muscles: pumping
blood, breathing
air, digesting food, etc.

57. o spinal cord
 long bundle of nerves within
the vertebral column
 carries messages between
brain and spinal nerves
o nerves
 pathway of neurons

58. transmits messages by
electrochemical impulses
 sensory nerves carry
impulses to brain
 motor nerves carry
impulses to muscles

59. • Functions:
o allows oxygen in the air to be
taken into the body
o enables the body to get rid of
carbon dioxide from the body
o filters, warms, and humidifies
inhaled air

60. • Path of inhaled air:
o The two openings of the airway
(the nasal cavity and the mouth)
meet at the pharynx, or throat.
o The epiglottis, a small flap of
tissue, covers the air-only
passage when we
swallow, keeping food and
liquid from going into our lungs.

61. o The larynx , or voice box, is the
uppermost part of the air-only
passage.
 contains a pair of vocal
cords, which vibrate to make
sounds
o The trachea, or
windpipe, extends downward
from the base of the larynx.

62. o The trachea divides into left
and right air tubes
called bronchi, which connect
to the lungs.
o Within the lungs, the bronchi
branch into smaller bronchi and
even smaller tubes
called bronchioles.

63. o Bronchioles end in tiny air sacs
called alveoli .
 where the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide
takes place
• The lungs also contain elastic tissues
that allow them to inflate and deflate
without losing shape and are encased
by a thin lining called the pleura.

64. • Functions:
o Brings in food (ingestion)
o Breaks food down to usable
form (digestion)
o Gets food to circulatory system
for transport to cells
(absorption)
o Gets rid of waste (egestion)

65. • Pathway of food
o Mouth
 begins process of digestion
 Teeth = make food pieces
smaller
 incisors cut, canines tear,
premolars & molars grind

66.  Salivary glands = secrete
saliva
 3 pairs
 moisten food
 start digestion of starches
 Tongue = prepare food for
swallowing
 makes a bolus (ball of food)

67. o Pharynx
o Esophagus
 lies behind trachea
 peristalsis = involuntary
muscular movements move food
to stomach
o Stomach
 breaks down food into chyme
(semi-liquid)

68. Accessory organs = produce
substances that are added to
the digestive process
 Liver – secretes bile
• helps breakdown fats
 Gallbladder – stores bile
 Pancreas – secretes
digestive juices

69. o Small intestine
 most digestion occurs here
 nutrients are absorbed into
the bloodstream here
 lined with villi & microvilli
 increases surface area

70. o Large Intestine
 larger in circumference, shorter
in length than small intestine
 removes excess water from
undigested food
o Rectum
 stores waste until exit through
anus

71. • Functions
o Removes waste from blood
o Excretes waste from body
 through sweating
 through expiration
 through elimination

72. • Organs
o Kidneys
 remove waste products from
the blood
o Ureters
 drain waste from kidneys
o Urinary bladder

73.  collects and holds urine until
it is removed from the body
 can stretch to hold about 1
qt. of fluid
o Urethra
 tube from bladder that
carries urine to outside

74.  Other organs
 lungs = remove CO2 & H2 O
 skin = through perspiration
gives off water & metabolic
wastes
 liver = cleans waste
particles from the blood

75. • Functions
o controls functions within body
o communicates changes within
body
o maintains stability within body
• Facts
o functions through chemical
messengers = hormones

76. o endocrine glands are ductless
 no tubes
 secrete directly into
bloodstream
 sweat glands have
tubes, for example and are
considered EXOcrine
glands

77. • Organs
o Pituitary gland
 the “master” gland
 helps regulate activity of
other glands
 found within brain
 produces growth hormone

78. o Thyroid gland
 located in front of the trachea
and below the larynx
 “bow tie”
 secretes hormones that
regulate growth and energy
usage

79. o Pancreas
 left side of center, near
stomach
 secretes insulin, made by the
Islets of Langerhans
 regulates the amount of
sugar in the blood

80. o Adrenal glands
 located on top of each kidney
 produce adrenaline
(epinephrine)
 heart rate and force are
increased, blood pressure
rises, and blood flow to the
skeletal and cardiac
muscles is increased

81. o Reproductive glands
 Ovaries in females
 produce estrogen
 Testes in males
 produce testosterone