second language learning

1. What do you think good language learners do as they learn?
Seven Hypothesis about good language learners
(Naiman et al.)
1. The good language learner is a willing and accurate guesser.
2. The good language learner has a strong drive to communicate, or to
learn from communication. He is willing to do many things to get his
message across.
3. The good language learner is often not inhibited. He is willing to
make mistakes in order to learn and communicate. He is willing to
live with certiain mount of vagueness.
4. In addition to focusing on communication the good language learner
is prepared to attend to form.
5. The good language learner practices.
6. The good language learner constantly monitors his own speech and
the speech of others.
7. The good language learner attends to meaning.

2. Learning Strategies
• L2 learning strategies are specific behaviors or thought
processes that students use to enhance their own L2
learning.
• Oxford (1990) argues that there are ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’
learning strategies.
• When using direct strategies, the language user is like the
performer in a play. The language learner’s direct strategies
help him to come to grisps with language. They deal with
things like memorizing vocabulary, and for getting to
understand new grammar rules.
• The learner’s indirect strategies are more akin to the role of
the play’s director. They deal with regulation and control. In
the case of the language learner, this would include planning
issues (like how many hours you spend on learning, and
what you do in preparation for each lesson).

3.  Six Main Categories of L2 Learning Strategies
(Oxford, 1990)
A) Direct strategies
1. Cognitive strategies
2. Memory strategies
3. Compensation strategies
B) Indirect strategies
4. Metacognitive strategies
5. Affective strategies
6. Social strategies

4. 1. Cognitive Strategies:
Cognitive strategies are helpful for understanding and
producing the language. They enable the learner to
manipulate the language material in direct ways, e.g.,
through reasoning, analysis, note-taking,
summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing
information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge
structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and
practicing structures and sounds formally.

5.  2. Memory Strategies
Memory strategies are useful for remembering and
retrieving new information. They help learners link one
L2 item or concept with another but do not necessarily
involve deep understanding.
Various memory-related strategies enable learners to
learn and retrieve information in an orderly string, while
other techniques create learning and retrieval via
sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental picture
of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a
combination of sounds and images, mechanical means
(e.g., flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page or
blackboard).

6.  3. Compensation Strategies
Compensation strategies are useful for using the
language despite knowledge gaps.
(e.g., guessing from the context in listening and
reading; using synonyms and “talking around” the
missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly
for speaking, using gestures or pause words) help the
learner make up for missing knowledge.

7.  4. Metacognitive Strategies
Metacognitive strategies are useful for coordinating the
learning process. (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style
preferences and needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering
and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a
schedule, evaluating task success, and evaluating the
success of any type of learning strategy) are employed for
managing the learning process overall.

8.  5. Affective strategies are used for regulating
emotions.
 Affective strategies such as identifying one’s mood
and anxeity level, talking about feelings, rewarding
oneself for good performance, and using deep
breathing or positive self-talk have been shown to
be significantly related to L2 proficiency in research.

9.  6. Social Strategies are useful for learning with others.
(e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for
clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing
a language task, talking with a native-speaking
conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social
norms) help the learner work with others and
understand the target culture as well as the language.