An introduction to conducting focus groups for social science research. The course includes information on developing protocol guides, moderating focus groups, analyzing results, and reporting findings.

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Intro to Focus Groups
Emily Geisen
Amanda Wilmot
10/30/2013
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
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Ground Rules
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Cell phones turned to vibrate or off
Refreshments and restrooms any time
Several bio-breaks throughout
Questions are encouraged at end of each section

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Course Outline
The role and use of focus groups
2. Focus group demonstration
3. Developing the protocol guide
4. Moderating focus groups
5. Recruiting and scheduling
6. Participant selection
7. Data management/analysis
8. Reporting findings
9. Drawing wider inferences
10. Qualitative Research Ethics
1.

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1. The Role and Use of Focus Groups
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What is a Focus Group?
“Focus group interviews typically have five characteristics
or features: (a) people, who (b) possess certain
characteristics, (c) provide data (d) of a qualitative nature
(e) in a focused discussion.”
-Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research (Krueger)

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Examples
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A group of coal miners sit around a small conference
room discussing mine safety. They all agree that safety
is important, but some argue that existing safety
regulations are too unrealistic or impractical to be
implemented.
A group of employees sit in a conference room
discussing access to email and other work functions
from mobile devices. One participant says answering
emails on his phone will save him time. Another
participant worries that her supervisor will expect her to
reply to emails at all hours if she has access on her
phone.

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What is a Focus Group, again?
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Researchers have a topic they want to know about:
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These topics are communicated to a group of
participants to discuss
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Why aren‟t coal miners following safety precautions?
What concerns do employees have about mobile email access?
Pre-scripted questions to generate discussion
Targeted moderation to focus the discussion
Researchers summarize and interpret what they have
learned

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Uses of Focus Groups
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Exploration and Discovery
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Context and Depth
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Collect info that will be used to guide development of a survey
Collect info for a needs assessment
Test a new product before development
Adding new topics or population groups to a survey
Delving deeper into a survey topic
Testing a product with a new audience
Interpretation
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Deciding how to use survey results
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Discuss applications with end users
-Focus Group Guidebook (Morgan)

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Uses of Focus Groups*, Continued
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Stand-alone data collection method, or
 Supplement other qualitative or quantitative
research methods
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In-depth personal interviews
Survey development
Needs assessment
Product development

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Focus Groups for Survey Research
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Identify topics/themes that are of interest to population
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Get more detail on a topic so that you don‟t have to ask
open-ended questions
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Use this to add questions on these topic/themes
Cut questions that are not relevant, not applicable, or show no
variation
Which of the following are reasons why you do not have health
insurance? Too expensive, No health problems, …
Get reaction to survey materials such as advanced
letters, envelopes, etc.
 Explore methods to boost cooperation: what type of
incentives would people prefer?

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Strengths of Focus Groups (over other
qual./quan. methods)
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If you‟re unfamiliar with a topic, you can learn a lot
quickly (often used as the first step in research)
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Can be used to observe interactions or group dynamics
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Generate hypotheses (that can be tested using
quantitative methods)
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Cheaper/quicker than other methods

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Limitations of Focus Groups
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Some topics are too sensitive or controversial to be
discussed in a group setting (social desirability)
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Discussions can get easily sidetracked/derailed
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Limited generalizability of findings/results
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Cannot quantify findings or determine statistical
significance

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Thinking about your research…
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How are you going to use focus groups?
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Exploration and discovery? How so?
Context and depth? How so?
Interpretation? How so?
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Will your focus groups be stand-alone or will you use
them with other research methods?
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What are the strengths/weaknesses of using focus
groups for your research?

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Questions/Discussion

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2. Focus Group Demonstration
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3. Developing the Protocol Guide
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The What, Why, Who, How, Where
What Review research objectives
Who Determine number and type of participants
Recruit and schedule participants
Where Determine test location and equipment
Why Identify major topic areas of interest
How Script focus group questions
Develop focus group guide

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The What, Why, Who, How, Where
What Review research objectives
Who Determine number and type of participants
Recruit and schedule participants
Where Determine test location and equipment
Why Identify major topic areas of interest
How Script focus group questions
Develop protocol guide

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What’s the Focus Group About: Review
Research Objectives
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Start with the overall research objectives / study goals
Identify what do you already know about the topic
Determine what new information you want to learn
Determine what information you want to explore in more
detail
Decide how are you going to use this information

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Review Research Objectives: Example
Step
Personal Health Records Example
Study goals:
Learn about healthcare consumers
understanding, experiences, needs, and
concerns about the ways technology can
be used within the healthcare system
What do you already
know about the topic:
Research has shown that use of electronic
PHRs can save consumers money and
improve health, yet they are not being used
extensively.
What do we want to learn
through focus groups:
Why aren‟t more consumers using
electronic PHRs to manage their health
information?
How will we use this info:
Provide recommendations for improving
PHRs and promoting awareness.

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Review Research Objectives: Your Turn
Step
Study goals:
What do you already know
about the topic:
What do we want to learn
through focus groups:
How will we use this info:
Your Study

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Why: Identify Major Discussion Topics
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Once you identify what you want to learn, identify major
discussion topics (brainstorm)
Why are we doing these focus groups:
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What is the most important question your research must answer?
What‟s the next most important question?
And so on …
Consult with project team members as needed
Consider how topic areas may need to differ by
participant selection

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Identify Major Discussion Topics: Example
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Why aren‟t more consumers using electronic PHRs to
manage their health information?
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Consumers who have not used electronic PHRs
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How familiar are consumers with electronic PHRs?
How do consumers currently manage their health
information?
What are the most important factors consumers consider
when deciding how to manage their health information
What are their biggest concerns/fears about using PHRs?
Narrow list of discussion topics to about 4 major topic
questions per hour (more if questions are more specific)

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How: Scripting Questions
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Avoid yes/no or short-answer questions, unless:
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Open-ended questions generate discussion, however:
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Open-ended follow up is planned (e.g., why/why not?)
Used to tally group (e.g., those in favor/opposed)
Keep questions focused, one-dimensional
Be careful of “Why?” questions
Use scripted probes to focus or narrow topics
Questions should be easily comprehensible: use familiar
words/terms
Questions should be reflective, not hypothetical
Move from general to more specific

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Scripting Questions: Example 1
Topic: How do consumers currently manage their health
information?
 Bad: How do you manage your family‟s health
information?
 Good: How do you currently maintain or store your and
your family‟s medical records, such as records of
vaccinations or prescriptions?
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Do you keep paper or electronic records?
How does this differ for you compared to your children (or elderly
parents)?

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Scripting Questions: Example 2
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Bad: Why do you use the mobile device you
have?
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Better: What kind of mobile device do you use
at work?
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Best: How did you decide what kind of mobile
device to use at work?

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Other aspects of Protocol Guide
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Welcome/Introduction
Icebreaker
Opening (or Engagement) questions:
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Exploration questions (main study questions)
Exit questions:
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Easy and inviting, comfortable to discuss
Introduces the topic of discussion, provides context/background
Used to wrap-up the discussion
Check to see if there is anything else people would like to
mention that they did not get a chance to
Pre/Post Questionnaires

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Welcome/Introduction
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Welcome
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Informed consent (if required)
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Introduce yourself, note-taker AND people behind the glass
Make participants feel comfortable
Read or summarize consent, ask participants to sign
Note audio-recording if applicable
Explain confidentiality
Go over ground rules
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Refreshments, restrooms, cell phones off or on vibrate
No right or wrong answers
Like to hear from everyone

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Icebreaker
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Sometimes it‟s helpful to start with an ice-breaker
Ask participant to provide their name (first name only)
Have them answer an easy question
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Participants should be able to answer it briefly, quickly
Should not be sensitive
Can be related to focus group topic or unrelated
Example
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Employee focus group: How long at company?
Department/Division?
Focus group of moms: How many children and their ages

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Intro Questions
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Introduce Topic
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Provide any needed context
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Goal/Purpose of the study
Why participants were selected (if not obvious)
For focus group on Personal Health Records, we had to explain
what PHRs were
Show participants related materials or products
Provide background
Opening Question
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Should be easy/simple to answer
Non-sensitive

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Pre/Post Questionnaires
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Pre questionnaire:
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Post questionnaire:
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Use to collect information about your participants without wasting
valuable time during the focus group
Use to determine how familiar/knowledgeable participants are
with topic at start of focus group
Can be same as pre-questionnaire to monitor changes in opinion
or knowledge
Can be a handy way to summarize participants‟ opinions on
discussion topics
Keep questionnaires short (5 minutes)

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Putting it all together
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Allow time for welcome, explaining the purpose of the
study, and consent procedures (if required)
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Allow time for introductory or ice-breaker question
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At least 5 minutes
Time for your main discussion questions
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At least 5 minutes
About 4 question topics (per hour)
10-15 minutes per question
Exit/Wrap-up
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At least 5 minutes

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Determining Question Flow
What order would you put these questions in?
1. Describe the benefits of using a mobile device for the
work you do?
2. How did you decide what kind of mobile device to use at
work?
3. What are the biggest limitations or barriers to using a
mobile device for the work you do?
4. How often do you use your mobile device for the work
you do?

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Question Flow
2. How did you decide what kind of mobile device to use at
work?
1. Describe the benefits of using a mobile device for the
work you do?
4. How often do you use your mobile device for the work
you do?
3. What are the biggest limitations or barriers to using a
mobile device for the work you do?

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Protocol Guide Examples: Handouts
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Handout 1: Mine Contractors Protocol Guide
Handout 2: Healthcare Consumers Protocol Guide
Handout 3: Tobacco Panel Protocol Guide
Handout 4: Post questionnaire

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Individual Practice (15 minutes)
Use your study or class example
 Identify 1-2 major discussion topics for your study
 Prepare an introductory question
 Prepare 1-2 discussion questions with probes as needed

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Questions/Discussion

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4. Moderating Focus Groups
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Understanding the group Process
Forming
Testing and dependence
Dependence on the leader
Storming
Intragroup conflict
Criticism
Norming
Development of group cohesion
Optimism
Performing
Functional role relatedness
Cohesiveness
Adjourning (Mourning)
Termination, Separation
Model of group phases
(Ritchie and Lewis 2003)

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The Ideal Moderator:
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Has adequate knowledge of topic
 Has good communication skills
 Is similar to / can build a rapport with participants
 Can maintain balanced viewpoint
 Is prepared for surprises
 Reports accurately, even if it‟s uncomfortable
 Has Experience with:
– group dynamics
– neutral probing/feedback

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What the Moderator Does
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Welcome/Introductions
Leads discussion
Concludes discussion

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Welcome/Introduction
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Make participants feel comfortable
 Read or paraphrase this welcome/introduction in
protocol guide
 Make sure to collect informed consent
 Notify participants of observers and/or audio recording
 Go over any ground rules
 Let participants get refreshments and get situated before
starting actual focus group discussion

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Leads Discussion
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Provides unobtrusive control
 Manages group dynamics
 Asks spontaneous probes as needed to gather more
information
 Provides unbiased feedback
 Summarize/verify information
 Manages time

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Provide Unobtrusive Control
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Know when to stop talking
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Learn to focus the discussion
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You said X, can you tell me more about that?
Note topics said, that you want to circle around to
Manage the flow of the discussion
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Don‟t constantly interject, let participants discuss back and forth
Don‟t have to follow script, allow natural segues
If a topic you plan to cover later is brought up, indicate that you‟ll
talk more about that later.
Encourage different point of views
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Has anyone had a different experience?
Does anyone view it differently?

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Tips for Managing Group Dynamics
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Dominant talkers:
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Ramblers/Off-topic:
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Don‟t look at them when you ask a question.
(Politely) cut them off: “Thank you Amanda. Does anyone else
have an experience they‟d like to share?”
Avoid eye contact after so long off topic, look down or at clock
Be prepared to interject at next pause
Shy participants:
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Maximize eye contact
Call by name: I‟ve heard from some of you on this and I want to
hear from the rest of you. Sarah, what is your experience with X?

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Tips on Spontaneous Probing
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Leading probes:
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So you had a hard time with that then?
You didn‟t want to learn more about that?
Was that difficult for you?
Neutral probing:
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Can you tell me more about that?
Would you explain that further?
Can you give me an example?
Is there anything else?

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When you hear yourself asking a leading
question, balance it
“So you think
that‟s difficult
then?”
Leading
question
47
“...or was it
easy?”
Balanced
question

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Tips on Neutral Feedback
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Monitor your reaction to participants/discussion
Be careful of nonverbal cues (leaning back, crossed
arms)
Limit head nodding: shows you‟re listening, but also
implies agreement
Provide quick verbal responses periodically (uh-huh,
yes, mmm, okay, go on)
Avoid loaded feedback (which implies agreement)
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Loaded feedback: “That‟s good!” “Excellent.”
Neutral feedback: “That‟s helpful” “That‟s interesting.”

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Summarize/Verify Information
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As needed, summarize/paraphrase what has been said
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See if anything has been missed?
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Did I miss anything?
Does anyone have anything else to add?
Probe on any subtopics you didn‟t cover
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I understand that work-life balance is your most important
concern.
Safety is critical, but some of the precautions you‟re asked to
follow are pointless or unrealistic. Is that correct?
We talked about X, but I‟m also interested in Y
Move on to next topic

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Conclusion / Wrap-up
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Be sure to leave time for wrap-up, especially for
sensitive topics or intense discussions
Ask participants to identify most important issues
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Summarize major themes (ask note-taker for help)
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Of everything we have discussed, what is the most important?
If you could make one request to X, what would it be?
Ask if its an adequate summary
Ask if anything has been missed, anything to add
Check with observers to see if they have any
questions/clarifications
Pay participants!

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Dealing with Difficult Situations
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Too many people show up
Participants bring their children
Only a few attend
Group is reluctant to talk
Can‟t get them to stop talking

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Plan Your Response…
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20 minutes into the focus group, and Sarah has not said
anything…
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You can‟t get Joe to stop talking…
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John mentions something interesting, but you don‟t want
to interrupt because there‟s a good discussion going…

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Role of Note-Taker
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Can Handle logistics & refreshments
Collects signed informed consent (if required)
Takes careful notes
Does not participate in discussion
Can recap major themes at end of discussion (used
before wrap-up question)
Monitors recording equipment
Liaison between moderator and observers/clients
Debriefs with moderator after session
Assist with analysis and reports

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Role of Co-Moderator
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Not required, but can be useful in some situations
 Balance out strengths/weaknesses in moderator
 Use to match moderator (without being obvious)
 Switch leading focus group (good for long or intense
focus groups)
 Support leader by keeping on track, recapping major
themes, etc.

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Moderating style
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Different styles for different people
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Spontaneous flow
Follow guide strictly
Adapt to your style, but plan ahead
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Spontaneous: Be sure to note what you‟ve covered and what you
haven‟t so that you don‟t forget anything.
Strict: “That‟s a very interesting point, and we‟re going to get to
that in a minute, but right now I want to focus on X:

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Group Practice Moderating (30 min)
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Questions/Discussion

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5. Recruiting and Scheduling
(review on your own)
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At Least a Month Before Focus Group
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Decide on what you‟re testing
Decide on the participants (see Section 6) :
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Who you want to recruit
How many
How you will find them
Plan the test date
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Find a date when your stakeholders can observe
Decide on your location

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How to Find Your Participants
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Frame/list if available
Advertisements: Craigslist, flyers, newspapers
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Participant databases/recruiting orgs
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Pros: quick, easy, cheap
Cons: yields younger, higher educated users
Pros: quick and easy, pay per user recruited
Cons: can lead to “professional respondents”
Other sources: word of mouth; sample lists; clubs,
churches, and societies; snowball recruiting

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What to Pay Participants?
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Are participants allowed to accept monetary incentives?
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Federal employees
Participants who are being paid by their employer
Is it appropriate for your organization to pay participants?
Is topic interesting/important enough that incentives are
not necessary
How much should you pay them?
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Trade-off between incentive amount and recruitment effort
Tailor amount to population and location
Will participants need to pay for parking?

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Recruiting Tips
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Recruit extras due to no-shows or cancellations
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Schedule sessions about 3-4 weeks ahead
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Example: Recruit 12 to ensure at least 8 show up
Any earlier and they may forget or make new plans
Any later and you may not be able to recruit enough
participants
Send them an email or letter confirmation
 Remind them the day before (by email or phone)

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Testing Location
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At a minimum, use a large conference room (at your
organization‟s offices, hotel conference room)
For numerous focus groups: formal observation rooms
are nice (see picture on next slide)
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One-way mirror so you can see them, but they can‟t see you
Microphones in ceiling to pick up voices, but not other sounds
(paper shuffling)
Video-taping capability
Rent a focus group facility
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Usually very nice but can be expensive ($1,000 for 2-hour
session)

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Observation Room Example

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Create a Virtual Observation Room using
screen-sharing software
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Examples: Skype, Go to Meeting
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Fosters collaboration
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Improved schedule
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Can accommodate observers from any location
Facilitate discussions in conference setting
Stakeholders get information immediately
No waiting for recorded videos or report
Cheaper: Inexpensive compared to travel costs

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Note-Taking
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Recommend having a note-taker and audio or videorecording the session
Note-takers should be in the room or observation room
For audio-recording, consider getting additional
microphones so that you can hear everyone
Video-recording can be helpful, but makes some
participants uncomfortable
Participants usually forget they‟re being recorded/
observed after 5-10 minutes

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At Least Three Weeks Before Focus Group
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Get started on recruitment
Organize your incentives
Develop your focus group guide

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One Week Before the Focus Group
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Final your focus group guide
Organize roles in the test:
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Meet and greet
Observers/Stakeholders
Moderator
Note-takers
Do a practice run on any equipment
Arrange any refreshments
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At a minimum provide beverages
Tailor food to participants / time of day
Nothing messy or loud

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Prepare your materials
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Develop consent forms, screeners
Instructions/directions for participants
Prepare any visual materials for participants
Pretest/posttest questionnaires

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The Day Before / Morning Of
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Send out reminders:
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Phone or email to respondents
Email to observers, stakeholders, note-takers
Equipment/Facility
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Make sure the room you‟ll use is tidy
Make sure your meet/greet person
has the final list of participants‟ names
Incentives are available
Check any equipment (video/audio recording)

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6. Participant Selection
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Purpose of the session
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To understand the principles of participant selection for
focus group research
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To consider the practicalities of participant selection for
focus group research

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Focus groups: a qualitative data collection method
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Focus groups are a qualitative data collection method
When reporting the findings the rationale should be
provided for the research along with the methods used
Is the research…
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Justified
Rigorous
Systematic
Transparent

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Sampling for qualitative research
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The design of a sampling strategy for qualitative
research is as important as that for quantitative research
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Qualitative research uses non-probability sampling

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Informing the design of a qualitative sampling strategy
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What are the research objectives?
What is the scope of the research?
Who is out of scope and should be excluded from the sample?
Who is in scope and should be included in the sample?
What is the budget?
What is the reporting time period?
What sampling technique will be employed?
How are the data to be analyzed?
What data collection methods should be employed?
What are the sample criteria?
What size should the sample be?
What will be used as the sampling frame?
How are potential respondents/participants recruited?

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Sampling technique
Quantitative sampling
 Probability sampling
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Members of the research population are chosen at random and have a
known probability of selection
The aim is to produce a statistically representative sample
Qualitative sampling
 Purposive non-probability sampling
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
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The number of people interviewed is less important that the criteria used to
select them
Members of the research population are chosen on the basis of their
characteristics to reflect breadth and diversity of the research population
We do not aim to produce a statistically representative sample or draw
statistical inference

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Sample criteria

What characteristics will need to be reflected in the
sample population to ensure breadth and diversity?

Criteria used may be based on demographic
characteristics or behaviours or attitudes
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Some criteria may be considered more important than
others

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Sample size
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Small sample sizes for qualitative research
There is no need for scale because there is no need for
statistical inference
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Sample size determinants:
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Heterogeneous or homogenous nature of sample population
Number of selected criterion
Scale


10 to 50 for one-to-one investigation
40 to 100 for group interview

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Sampling frames
A sampling frame is a list that identifies units within the
target population
Frame evaluation:
 Comprehensive
 Sufficient numbers
 Geographical dispersion
 Respondent contact details correct

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Sampling frames

Existing frames
– Administrative sources
– Survey samples

Constructed frames
– Direct and/or indirect methods

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Constructed frames

Focussed enumeration
 Snowballing
 Screening questionnaires
 Organisations
 Advertisements

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Study about attitudes and behaviors surrounding
dental attendance
Selection criteria initially considered










Age to ensure demographic balance
Gender because patterns of attendance differ between men and women
Family Unit composition because attendance by others in the family might
influence the respondents attitudes or behaviours
Employment activity because attendance might be affected by time constraints
during working hours
Income as a known factor affecting dental attendance patterns
Regional location as dental attendance varies across the country
Ethnic origin as may influence attitudes or behaviours
Type of area as urban/rural location may affect attitudes and behaviours
Dental health to explore how attitudes vary among people with different dental
health
Current pattern of dental attendance (regular/irregular/occasional) for comparative
analysis
Illustration from Ritchie J and Lewis J „Qualitative Research Practice‟ (2006)

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Prioritised selection criteria
Primary criteria
Dental attendance pattern
Age
Gender
Region
Family Unit
Employment activity
Income
Secondary criteria
Dental Health
Ethnic Origin
Type of Area
Illustration from Ritchie J and Lewis J „Qualitative Research Practice‟ (2006)

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Sample Matrix
Area 1 of 6
Group 1
18-29
Group 2
30-44
Group 3
45+
4 men
1-2 regular attenders
1-2 irregular attenders
1 occasional attender
4 men
1 regular attender
1-2 irregular attenders
1-2 occasional attenders
4 men
1-2 regular attenders
1 irregular attender
1-2 occasional attenders
4 women
1-2 regular attenders
1-2 irregular attenders
1 occasional attender
4 women
1 regular attender
1-2 irregular attenders
1-2 occasional attenders
4 women
1-2 regular attenders
1 irregular attender
1-2 occasional attenders
Spread of family unit type and employment activity
Illustration from Ritchie J and Lewis J „Qualitative Research Practice‟ (2006)

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Any Questions?

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Excercise




Groups
Designing a sampling strategy for focus groups on the
use of electronic personal health records
15 mins
Feedback

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7. Data Management and analysis
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
www.rti.org

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Purpose of the session

To understand the principles of good qualitative focus
group analysis

To consider the practicalities of analysing qualitative
data

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Acknowledgement

Some of the slides contributed by the UK National
Centre for Social Research (NatCen).

The Framework methodology was developed by
Jane Ritchie and Liz Spencer in the 1980s at NatCen.

http://www.natcen.ac.uk/events-and-training/ourtraining

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Qualitative data

Focus group recording

Focus group transcription

Notes

Admin data

Photographs, videos etc

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Transcription

Transcription is time consuming
 The focus group transcription should capture the
discussion in it‟s entirety
 Focus groups are more difficult to transcribe than one-toone interviews as there are multiple participants to
distinguish between
 It may be important for the analysis for the transcriber to
be able to identify each participant‟s words. The
transcriber will use the notetaker‟s notes to help
determine who is speaking
 Check on quality of the transcription
 Anonymize transcript

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Different approaches to data management, analysis and
reporting

Summary report

Qualitative analysis

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Nature of qualitative analysis

Quantitative research
Qualitative research
–
- Creating categories
–
–
Fixed categories aiming to
enumerate
Requires enumeration in
order to be meaningful
Test hypotheses and
provide explanation
- Developing explanations
- Does not need enumerating
- Range and diversity key

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Aim of analysis - analytical outputs
Categories of things (thematic analysis)


Reasons for gambling
Sources of debt advice
Categories of people or processes (typologies)


Types of parents of children with learning difficulties
Types of welfare benefit claimants
Explanations of attitudes, choices or impacts
(explanatory analysis)

Factors influencing how people save for retirement

What helps achieve positive outcomes from an employment
programme

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The nature of qualitative data
The data are:

Voluminous

Unwieldy

Multi-stranded with overlapping categories and theme

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7.1 Data management
“Chaos is merely order waiting to be deciphered”
Jose Saramago

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What is Framework?
Developed by Jane Ritchie and Liz Spencer in the 1980s at NatCen
Social Research
Key characteristics
 Approach to data management which facilitates case and theme
based analysis of qualitative data
 Case and theme based approach
 Matrix display
 Reduces data through summarisation and synthesis
 Retains links to original data
 Output allows comprehensive and transparent data analysis
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Objectives of data management
Primary objective
Re-order
Make data accessible
Introduction to Framework
Secondary objective
Reduce, prioritize
© NatCen Learning

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Data management
•
Data management involves ‘cutting’ up data
•
Aim is to create useful ‘piles’ of data
•
Three ways you can ‘cut’ data
 Thematically
 By case
 By case and theme
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Theme-based approach
Crime
Introduction to Framework
Contact with
CJS
Impact
© NatCen Learning

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Case-based approach
Wendy
Bob
Jim
Robbery
Introduction to Framework
Contact
with police
Financial
impact
© NatCen Learning

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Framework is a case and theme based approach
Name
Crime
Contact with
CJS
Impacts
Jim
Bob
Wendy
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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The Framework approach
Familiarisation
Read proposal and transcripts
Review topic guide and field notes
Identify descriptive categories
Develop working analytical framework of key
themes and sub-themes
Indexing
Pilot Charting
Apply numerical series to framework, label
data sources and revise framework
Chart a few transcripts using working
framework and the revise
Charting
Summarise/synthesise data
Investigation and interpretation
Reporting findings
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Stage 1: Data familiarization process
•
Familiarize yourself with the data by reading
through transcripts and other documentation
•
Immerse yourself in the data
•
Begin to construct your analytical framework
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Stage 2: Creating the ‘framework’
Multitude of potential descriptive categories
 different kinds and levels of category
Choice of categories depends on
 interview guide
 research questions
 emergent themes
 recurrence across cases
Data management  interpretation
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Frame construction: individual data

One chart represents one main theme

Chart each individual case
–
–
–
Each individual as one row
Subthemes in each column
Give cases same space on each thematic chart

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Frame construction: group data

Chart as a whole group
–
–

One group per page, tracing individual cases
–
–
–

Each group as one case
Several groups on each thematic chart
Order cases in the same way
Give cases same space on each thematic chart
Don‟t be alarmed if every cell is not filled for each case
Guidelines for entering data
–
–
May be useful to keep a record of group process
Levels of participation, context in which comments made, how
views evolve/develop/change

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Before contact with employment scheme
Respondent
Employment
situation/
activity at time
of contact
Employment
history/work
activity in past
Hopes & aims
regarding
work before
contact
Barriers
perceived
in
achieving
aims
Efforts made to
overcome
barriers before
contacting
NDLP
Perception
of needs
before
contact
Overview of
financial
situation &
views about
at time
Other/Misc
#1
#2
#3
#4
A chart with sub-categories
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Stage 3: Testing the analytic framework

Testing framework is important
–
multi-stranded & overlapping categories
– different experiences

Test by coding or indexing
–
apply numerical code to categories and sub-categories
– code using software or write codes in margin of
transcript

Test by piloting
–

enter data from small number of transcripts
Checking for: overlap / gaps

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Data management coding / indexing
Example of analytical framework index for sexual identity project
1. Demographic details
2. Defining sexual identity
2.1 Conceptualization
2.2 Salience
2.3 Self categorization
2.4 Changes over time
3. Language used
3.1 Terminology used
3.2 Categories used
4. Acceptability
4.1 Acceptance by society
4.2 Understanding purpose of questioning
4.3 Trust in data security
4.4 Trust in data collector
5. Other

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Developing an analytical framework exercise

Groups to discuss analytic framework that could be used
for the morning focus group session

Create main themes and subthemes

Post-it notes

15 mins

Feedback – group spokesperson

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Stage 4: Summarising data (‘charting’)
• Condensing data
•
retains richness and flavour of data
• Process
•
theme by theme (if indexed) or by
transcript
• Takes practice – an art
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Entering data (‘charting’)
Process
 theme by theme (only when indexed)
 by transcript
Guidelines for entering data
 summarise material from transcripts/other data sources
 retain language
 mark but don‟t recite quotations
 note page references / create links between summaries and
the original transcript within CAQDAS software
 use agreed abbreviations/conventions
 avoid repetition by cross referencing data
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Data Management: Good practice
Reading the transcript beforehand
 structure of account and nature of the data
 repetition, clarification, contradiction
Reading chart afterwards
 clarity
 balance and emphasis
 check blank cells
Use ‘other’ column for interpretative notes
 note „flavor‟ of discussion
 note overarching issues
 alert others to important issues
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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7.2 Interpretation
“All meanings, we know, depend on the key of interpretation”
George Elliot

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Descriptive or explanatory analysis

Descriptive accounts

Explanatory accounts

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There are three key steps…
Detection
 familiarisation
 extraction (highlight/ summarise)
Categorisation
 creating meaningful conceptual boxes
 assigning data
Classification
 creating higher order categories
 assessing relationships between categories
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Categorization and classification
Lone parents orientation to the Labor Market
•
Relevant dimensions



•
Attitudes to work
Barriers to work
Stage of job search activity
Typology





Work not currently an option
Beginning to think about work
Personal issue barriers
Labor market barriers
Close to work
Introduction to Framework
© NatCen Learning

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Categorization and classification
Classification of sexual identity
 Relevant dimensions
–
–
–
–

Conceptualization
Salience
Self-categorization
Changes over time
Typology
–
–
–
Latent identifiers
Conscious identifiers
Reluctant identifiers
(2)

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Associations and explanations

Linkages between:
–
–
–

Two attitudes
Attitude and behavior
Circumstances and need
Verified through explanation
–
–
Explicit respondent accounts
Implicit identified by the researcher

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Making explanations

Informed by
–
–
–

Involves
–
–
–


Hunches and hypothesis
Reflections during field work and analysis
Other research or theories
Detailed within case analysis
Comparison between cases
Repeated interrogation of data
Comprehensive
Expect multiplicity

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Levels of classification and interpretation
In summary:
 Descriptive categories
–

Factors, reasons, impacts
Classifications or typologies
 Explained associations
 Meaning
 Theory/Strategy generation

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Any Questions?

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8. Reporting the Findings
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
www.rti.org

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Purpose of session

To provide a basic overview of the principles involved in
reporting qualitative findings and constructing a final
report.

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Aims of the final report

To complete and document the research process
 To inform key stakeholders of the findings
 To communicate the findings in a clear and coherent
way
 To guide readers in the interpretation of findings (avoid
misinterpretations)

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Basic principles for writing

Tell the story
 Structure the report
 Know your reader
 Write in plain English
 Use visual representation

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Reporting the Findings






Revisit the objectives (ensure the report covers these)
Consider the audience
Check report format
Consider time available
Consider length of the report (focus on relevant points
only)
Report findings in past tense

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Structuring the report

Title
 Contents
 Executive summary
 Introduction / Background
 Methodology
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendices e.g. sample matrix, interview guide

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Nature of the reporting

Descriptive

Explanatory

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Defining the boundaries




Research rationale
Methodology
– Sampling strategy
– Data collection
– Method of analysis
– What can or cannot be inferred form the findings
Examples of relevant documentation
– Interview guide
– Contact letter
– Screening questionnaire
– Sample matrix
Substantiate conclusions by grounding the data in the findings
– Examples
– Quotations
– Case illustrations

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Using Quotations

Avoid over-use
 Avoid under-use
 Present range and balance
 Edit sparingly
 Should provide illustration only
 Amplify but do not repeat a point
 Avoid reliance on a few articulate respondents
 Avoid very long quotations
 Identify relevant characteristics
 Preserve participant confidentiality

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Quotation examples



“I don‟t feel you have to be out in all contexts…” [Gay
man, 35-44]
“The Government uses statistics to show what it wants to
show, for example unemployment, they‟ve used all sorts
of different measures for employment to show it‟s going
down…rather than it necessarily going down itself.”
[MHE Wales]
“They don‟t XXX care about us. It‟s everyone for
themselves” [Male, 18-24, Central London]

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Quotation examples


“I think it depends quite a lot on the way you live and
how old you are. For example, I was born down [South
West county], and my parents being extremely
religious, have very definite views on sexuality.”
[Bisexual woman, aged 35-44]
“I‟ve lived in [Muslim country], nobody would ever admit
that [being gay], so they all choose to be heterosexual.
Somebody‟s not been here that long, it‟s even more of
an issue.” [Heterosexual woman, aged 35-44]

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Is a quotation necessary?
The actual presence of the question was considered to
have an important purpose in its own right. It was
thought that as the questioning became more
commonplace it would demonstrate to the wider public
that non-heterosexuality was unremarkable.
“It‟s having it on there, it‟s beginning to usualise the
question, it‟s a cultural shift, it‟s enabling people to
gradually recognise it‟s no bloody big deal. But if we
don‟t have it there, we are setting up this whole process
of we must be quiet about these people and all the rest
of it.” [Gay/lesbian woman, 55+]

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Avoiding quantitative language



Avoid tendency to use numbers
Do not discuss qualitative results in terms of proportions,
percentages or statistics
Indicate strength of finding by discussing in terms of:
–

A common finding, A recurring problem, Problems were
observed…. etc
Use diagrams for illustration

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Principles to remember

Present balanced findings
 Present grounded conclusions (avoid assumptions)
 Distinguish between findings and your own conclusions
 Provide commentary alongside the analysis (do not
leave the reader to do this for you)
 Support with evidence from other research findings (if
appropriate)

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Editing and reviewing

Allow some time before editing (if possible)
 Review the content
 Check accuracy of statements
 Peer Review
 Proof read

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Any Questions?

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9. Drawing Wider Inferences
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
www.rti.org

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Purpose of the session

To understand whether wider inference can be made
when using qualitative data

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Concerns

Small samples

Not statistically representative

Interviews/discussions not standardized

Proximity of researcher / too personal

Biased reporting

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Generalization

Can qualitative findings be generalized beyond the
sample and context of the study research?

Different definitions of „generalization‟.
–
Representational generalization.

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Representational generalization
Meaning
 Inference to parent or sampled population
 Whether range and diversity (experiences, explanations
etc) can be matched with the sampled population
 Whether list (of experiences, explanations etc) is
inclusive of what would be found in the sampled
population
Basis
 Depends on validity and reliability of findings

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Validity
Validity: Accuracy of representation

Has the researcher understood the issues
from the respondent‟s perspective?

Have the issues been fully articulated and explained

Are interpretations underpinned by the data
Alternative terms: Credibility and Plausibility

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Reliability
Reliability: Replicability

Internal reliability
–

Extent to which assessments and judgments are replicated
between researchers
External reliability
–
Extent to which findings would be replicated
if the study were repeated with the same
or different sample
Alternative terms:
Confirmability, Consistency, Dependability

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Drawing wider inference
Depends on:

Quality of sampling
–
Reflects diversity of sample
population
–
Includes all key constituents
–
Includes outliers and a-typical
cases

Quality of data collection
–
Free from interference: neutral
and objective
–
Probing of meaning
–
Exploration of all relevant
explanations



Quality of analysis
–
Systematic, comprehensive and
inclusive
–
Within and between case
analysis
–
Displays diversity
Quality of interpretation and reporting
–
Comprehensive
–
Clear
–
Underpinned by data
–
Displays multiplicity of accounts
and explanations
–
Non-quantitative
Documentation
–
Transparency
–
Research process

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Validation of the inference

Validation
– Comparison and check of fit
– Deviant cases analysis
– Member or respondent validation
– Triangulation

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In summary

Validity: do the data and findings accurately reflect the
behavior , views etc of respondents?
–
–


Content validity: the respondent‟s expression or articulation of the
issue
Validity of interpretation: the researchers interpretation of the
issue
Reliability: would the data and findings be replicated if
the study were repeated?
Representational generalization: are the data and
findings applicable to the wider population from which
the sample is drawn?

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Any Questions?

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10. Qualitative Research Ethics
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
www.rti.org

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Qualitative Research Ethics

Check the legal regulations for the State / Country
 Check your organisations Institutional Review Board
(IRB) policies
 Understanding “informed consent” (verbal/written)
 Understanding “confidentiality”
 Basic principles of good social research
–
–

Participant safety (Physical/Emotional/Psychological)
Researcher safety
Recompense

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References and Reading List
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
www.rti.org

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Reading List







Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for assessing research
evidence. A quality framework. A report produced on behalf of the Cabinet
Office by Liz Spencer, Jane Ritchie, Jane Lewis and Lucy Dillon, National
Centre for Social Research. ISBN: 07715 04465 8. August 2003.
Government Chief Social Researcher‟s Office Crown Copyright 2003.
Assessing the Quality of Qualitative Research. Patient Education and
Counseling 90 (2013) 1–3.
Qualitative Research Practice: A guide for Social Science Students and
Researchers. Edited by Jane Ritchie and Jane Lewis. SAGE 2003.
Focus Groups: Theory and Practice. D. W. Stewart and P.N. Shamdasani.
Applied Social Research Methods, Volume 20.
Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. David Morgan. Sage. 1989.
Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Richard Krueger.
Sage. 1989.
What Are Qualitative Research Ethics? Rose Wiles. Bloomsbury Academic.
2013.

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Other Resources





http://www.eiu.edu/~ihec/KruegerFocusGroupInterviews.pdf
http://www.tgci.com/magazine/How%20to%20Conduct%
20a%20Focus%20Group.pdf
http://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/focusgroups.htm
http://assessment.aas.duke.edu/documents/How_to_Co
nduct_a_Focus_Group.pdf
http://www.rowan.edu/colleges/chss/facultystaff/focusgro
uptoolkit.pdf

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Final Questions and Discussion