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Data collection methods
1. Dr. Amit Mohan Varshney, MD
Assistant Professor
Department of Community Medicine
MLB Medical College, Jhansi
Data Collection Methods
2. Data
Data is any information that has been collected, observed,
generated or created to validate original research findings.
3. What is Data Collection
It is the process by which the researcher collect the
information needed to answer the research question.
The task of data collection begins after the making of research
problem and design.
4. The researcher must decide
Which data to be collected
How to collect data
Who will collect the data
When to collect the data
Resources available
Credibility
Analysis and reporting
Skill of evaluator
6. Methods of Data Collection
A. Quantitative data collection methods-
• Questionnaires
• Schedules
• Interviews
B. Qualitative data collection methods-
• FGD
• In depth interview
• Observation
7. Norms to be considered for data collection
• Honesty
• Objectivity
• Integrity
• Carefulness
• Criticism
• Respect for intellectual property
• Confidentiality
• Responsible publication
• Non discrimination
• Legality
• Animal Care
• Human Subjects protection
10. Question sequence
To achieve the best response rates--
- Questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most
sensitive,
- From the factual and behavioral to the attitudinal, and
from the more general to the more specific
- Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double
negatives.
11. Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item
Construction
Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by
members of different subpopulations of the population of
interest.
Use statements where persons that have different opinions or
traits will give different answers.
Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of
possible answers.
Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per
item.
12. Translating a Questionnaire
Forward Translation
The initial translation from the original language to the target
language should be made by at least two independent
translators.
Backward translation
The initial translation should be independently back-translated
(i.e., translate back from the target language into the original
language) to ensure the accuracy of the translation.
13. Validating a Questionnaire
• The questionnaire measures what it is intended to measure.
A. Content validity-
The items in a questionnaire are representative of the entire
theoretical construct the questionnaire is designed to assess.
The process of content validation is particularly crucial in the
development of a new questionnaire.
14. Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable
for all educational levels.
Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g.
Do you like strawberries and potatoes?).
Question should not be biased or even leading the participant
towards an answer.
15. Preliminary pilot testing
• After completing the translated questionnaire, the respondent
is asked (verbally by an interviewer or via an open-ended
question) to elaborate what they thought each questionnaire
item and their corresponding response meant.
Importance-
• To make sure that the translated items retained the same
meaning as the original items
• To ensure there is no confusion regarding the translated
questionnaire.
16.
17. Tips of writing questions
Use short and simple sentences
Ask only one information at a time
Avoid negatives if possible
Precise questions
Ensure the knowledge
Avoid writing direct questions
Avoid weasels words like commonly, usually
Avoid too many and too few options
19. A. Content validity-
• Content validity refers to the extent to which the items in
a questionnaire are representative of the entire theoretical
construct the questionnaire is designed to assess.
-The questions were clear and easy
-The questions covered all the problem areas
-The questionnaire lacks important questions
-Some of the questions violate your privacy.
20. B. Face Validity-
• The ability of a instrument to be understandable and relevant
to the target population.
• Refers to the degree to which the respondents or laypersons
judge the questionnaire items to be valid.
• Face validity may motivate respondents to answer more
truthfully
21. C. Construct validity-
• To measure a construct that is not directly observable (e.g.,
pain, quality of recovery).
• Can be evaluated by estimating its association with other
variables (or measures of a construct) with which it should be
correlated positively, negatively, or not at all
• In practice, the questionnaire of interest, as well as the
preexisting instruments that measure similar and dissimilar
constructs, is administered to the same groups of individuals.
22. • Correlation matrices are then used to examine the expected
patterns of associations between different measures of the
same construct, and those between a questionnaire of a
construct and other constructs. It has been suggested that
correlation coefficients of 0.1 should be considered as small,
0.3 as moderate, and 0.5 as large.
23. D. Criterion Validity-
• To measure the criterion validity of a test, researchers
must calibrate it against a known standard or against
itself.
• Comparing the test with an established measure is
known as concurrent validity; testing it over a period
of time is known as predictive validity.
24. Advantages of Questionnaire
• Can be used as a method in its own right or a basis for
interviewing or a telephone survey
• Can be e-mailed, posted, faxed
• Can cover large number of population
• Relatively Cheap
• No prior arrangements are needed
• No interview bias
• Possible anonymity of respondents
25. Disadvantages of Questionnaires
• To be inadequate to understand some forms of
information - i.e. changes of emotions, behavior, feelings
etc.
• Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is
simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is
asking only a limited amount of information without
explanation.
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
26. • There is no way of telling how much thought a
respondent has put in.
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within
the full context of the situation.
• People may read differently into each question and
therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the
question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to
someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity
that is not acknowledged.
27. Schedule
• A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given
topic which are asked by the interviewer or investigator
personally.
28.
29. Interview
• Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers
from participants in a study.
• Interviewing has a variety of forms :
• Types-
-Face to face interview
-Phone interview
-Emailed interview
- Chat/messaging interview
30. Rules of Interview
• Careful selection of questions asked
• Start with small talks
• Recording
• Attentive
• Do not push
• Stick to the topic
31. Types of the interview
• Interviews can be –
A. Structured
B. Semi-structure
C. Unstructured.
32. Characteristics of the Structured
Interview
• The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of
questions.
• The questions are created prior to the interview, and often
have a limited set of response categories.
• There is generally little room for variation in responses
and there are few open-ended questions included in the
interview guide.
33. • Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing
of the questions are kept consistent from interview to
interview.
• The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and
friendly, but does not insert his or her opinion in the
interview.
• Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured
interview.
34. When to Use a Structured Interview
• A well-developed understanding of a topic allows
researchers to create a highly structured interview guide
or questionnaire that provides respondents with relevant,
meaningful and appropriate response categories to choose
from for each question.
• Structured interviews are, therefore, best used when the
literature in a topical area is highly developed or
following the use of observational
35. Benefits of Structured interview
• Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by
interviewers trained only to follow the instructions on the
interview guide or questionnaire.
• Structured interviews do not require the development of
rapport between interviewer and interviewee, and they
can produce consistent data that can be compared across a
number of respondents.
36. Semi-structured Interviews
Characteristics :
• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview.
• The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a
list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the
conversation, usually in a particular order.
• The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical
trajectories in the conversation that may stray from the guide
when s/he feels this is appropriate.
37. When to Use Semi-structured
Interviews
• When you won’t get more than one chance to interview
someone and when you will be sending several
interviewers out into the field to collect data.
• The semi-structured interview guide provides a clear set
of instructions for interviewers and can provide reliable,
comparable qualitative data.
• Semi-structured interviews are often preceded by
observation, informal and unstructured interviewing
38. Benefits of Semi structured interview
• This allows the interviewer to be prepared and appear
competent during the interview.
• Semi-structured interviews also allow informants the
freedom to express their views in their own terms.
• Semi-structure interviews can provide reliable,
comparable qualitative data.
39. Unstructured Interviews
• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal
interview in that they have a scheduled time to sit and
speak with each other and both parties recognize this to
be an interview.
• The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the
focus and goal of the interview. This guides the
discussion.
40. • There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the
interviewer builds rapport with respondents, getting
respondents to open-up and express themselves in their
own way.
• Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control
over informants’ responses.
41. When to Use Unstructured Interviews:
The researcher has developed enough of an understanding
of a setting and his/her topic of interest to have a clear
agenda for the discussion with the informant, but still
remains open to having his/her understanding of the area
of inquiry open to revision by respondents
42. Benefits of Unstructured interview
• Unstructured interviews are an extremely useful method
for developing an understanding of an as-of-yet not fully
understood or appreciated culture, experience, or setting.
• Unstructured interviews allow researchers to focus the
respondents’ talk on a particular topic of interest.
• Unstructured interviews can be an important preliminary
step toward the development of more structured interview
guides or surveys.
