There are three main points: 1) As technology advances, people are spending more time on near-vision tasks like reading screens which can cause eye strain and other symptoms of asthenopia. 2) A study of 3,800 patients found the most common symptoms were eye strain (58% of patients) and tired eyes (69% of patients), and these symptoms negatively impacted quality of life. 3) People who use computers extensively for work are at high risk for developing asthenopia, as are those in other professions involving intensive reading. Increased use of screens for both work and leisure has contributed to rising rates of asthenopia.

1. Visual Evolution
Asthenopia: A Technology
Induced Visual Impairment
As technology advances, eye strain and other symptoms of asthenopia are on the rise.
By Dominick M. Maino, O.D., M.Ed., and Christopher Chase, Ph.D.
ision systems evolve over
V
Figure 1. Symptomatology of Asthenopia
generations based on the
(modified from AOA Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline)
needs of the users and the
environment. In humans, Headaches (including migraines)
evolutionary pressures led to the
development of the need for clear Nausea
distance visual acuity and binocu-
lar three-dimensional (3D) stereo- General fatigue
scopic vision. These visual skills
Sleepiness
enabled us to effectively respond
to threats in the environment Diplopia
that were distant and constantly
changing, and improved our Photophobia
odds of being the hunter rather
than the hunted.1 When Johannes Blurred vision
Gutenberg developed the process Eye strain
for modern book printing in the
mid 15th century, he set in mo- Eye soreness/pain behind or inside eye
tion the shift in visual demands
away from the importance of see- Burning/tearing of eyes
ing clearly at distance and toward
Dryness (although there are other causes of this, including prolonged computer use)
a time intensive two-dimensional
near-point task such as reading.2 Difficulty reading
The emergence of mass-
produced print materials, such Irritability
as books and newspapers, has
resulted in patients experienc- Poor concentration
ing eye strain, and for some
individuals, resulted in academic basis, with potentially serious advances in these devices result
and work limitations.3,4 As tech- health implications.1 This problem in viewing screens of diminish-
nology advanced and electronic will continue to grow in scope as ing size. For example, films that
media became more dominant, patients spend increasing amounts were once projected onto a screen
eye strain has progressed to a of time performing near-vision that spanned the width of a wall
problem encountered on a daily tasks via digital media and as can now be viewed on a handheld
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2. screen that is a mere 2” x 3.” The Figure 2. Etiology of Asthenopia (AOA Optometric Clinical Practice Guidline)
technology-induced visual impair-
ments we are witnessing today are Type of Specific Diagnostic Categorical Descriptions
the result of our vision informa- Dysfunction Categories
tion processing system attempting Accommodative Accommodative Occurs when amplitude of accommodation is lower
to undo a millennia of evolution Insufficiency than expected for patient age
and adjust to a relatively sudden Ill-Sustained Amplitude of accommodation is normal, but fatigue
change in the demands placed Accommodation occurs with repeated accommodative stimulation
upon our vision.
Asthenopia, which includes eye Accommodative The accommodative system is slow in making a
strain and several other symp- Infacility change or when there is considerable lag between
toms (figure 1), often occurs in the accommodative stimulus and the response
patients whose visual systems Vergence Paralysis of Accommodative system fails to respond to any
are capable of performing near- Accommodation stimuli (very rare)
vision tasks for limited durations Spasm of Results from overstimulation of the parasympathetic
of time. It should be noted that Accommodation nervous system
asthenopia does not occur as a Vergence •Convergence Insufficiency: consists of a receded
consequence of any weakness Dysfunction near point of convergence, exophoria at near,
within the ocular musculature sys- reduced positive fusional convergence, and defi-
tem, but rather from the sustained ciencies in negative relative accommodation
near point demands now placed •Divergence Excess: exophoria or exotropia at far
upon a visual system primarily greater than the near deviation by at least 10 prism
designed for distance tasks. This diopters
is frequently caused by a lack of •Basic Exophoria: having a deviation of similar
appropriate cortical output that magnitude at both distance and near
is necessary for accurate accom- •Convergence Excess: having near deviation at
modative and fusional vergence least 3 prism diopters more esophoric than the dis-
system responses, and for the tance deviation
demands of the task.1 As seen in •Divergence Insufficiency: tonic esophoria is high
figure 2, there are a number of when measured at distance but less at near
etiologies for asthenopia, but a •Basic Esophoria: High tonic esophoria at distance,
recent study of 30 to 40 year-old a similar degree of esophoria at near, and a normal
myopic subjects with asthenopia accommodative convergence/accommodation
(N=253) found that the most fre- (AC/A) ratio
quently encountered oculo-visual •Fusional Vergence Dysfunction: having normal
problem was ill-sustained accom- phorias and AC/A ratios, but reduced fusional ver-
modation (54%).1,5 These findings gence amplitudes
corresponded with a 2001 study •Vertical Phorias: these may be either comitant and
of 18 to 38 year-old subjects that idiopathic or noncomitant, due to muscle paresis or
reported accommodative disorders other mechanical causes
in 61% of subjects.6
How Prevalent Is underestimated; 2) Patients expe- formed while wearing spectacles
Asthenopia? riencing these symptoms may not or contact lenses.
Gauging the prevalence of this always schedule an examination Research by Sheedy and associ-
disorder has proven difficult for or report them while being exam- ates shows two different afferent
three reasons: 1) If only one or ined due to the perception that pathways for the symptoms of
two symptoms of a wide-ranging no treatment options exist; and asthenopia. The symptoms can
symptomatology are assessed, 3) Patients may perceive these be divided into associations with
then the frequency and impact symptoms as an expected result either external or internal factors.
of asthenopia are bound to be associated with the near task per- External symptom factors (burn-
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3. Visual Evolution
ing, irritation, tearing and Figure 3: Percentage of Patients Experiencing Particular Asthenopic
dryness) are related to dry Symptom (NSIGHT 2009)
eye while internal symptom
factors (ache, strain and 80
headache behind the eyes) 69
70
are related to accommoda- 58
60
tive or binocular vision
stress.7 50
A study was conducted 40
that included 3,800 vision- 29
30
corrected (contact lenses
19
or spectacles) patients 20
from China, Japan, Korea, 10
France, Italy, the United
Kingdom and the United 0
Eye Strain Tired Eyes Headache After Near Pain Inside the Eye
States that allowed for the Work
determination of the preva-
lence, frequency and impact
of asthenopia upon the indi-
vidual.8 The next set of four
figures show the findings from and pain in the eyes, occurred in the ages of 10 and 39, when the
this study. Figure 3 shows the fewer respondents than the other amount of near work is great-
percentage of patients experienc- symptoms listed, but high percent- est.1 Many individuals with
ing symptoms. Figure 4 identifies ages of these respondents tended chronic problems have learned
the symptoms by region. Figure to experience these symptoms at to live with their condition and
5 pinpoints the symptoms expe- least three times or more each may not voluntarily reveal their
rienced three to seven times each week (headaches after near work symptoms. Young children (pre-
week. And, figure 6 highlights the 42%; pain inside the eye 33%) school and early grades) may have
negative impact of symptoms. (figure 5). Not surprisingly, a fewer near-vision demands; more
Results show that patients fre- pain-related symptom had the importantly, many children no
quently experienced asthenopic highest percentage of patients matter their age are often unable
symptoms with as many as 58% who found their occurrence to to describe their symptoms. These
experiencing eye strain and 69% be very bothersome (headaches children often do not report the
tired eyes (figure 3). Many of the after near work, 44%), which was symptoms associated with asthe-
symptoms that involved a pain- almost twice as high as the next nopia because they consider them
ful sequelae, such as headache symptom.8 This 3,800-patient as being what is normally experi-
after near work and pain inside survey shows that a large number enced by all.1
the eye, occurred less frequently of patients suffer from asthenopia Those whose occupations
but still affected 29% and 19% and the associated symptoms are require considerable amounts of
of patients, respectively (figure experienced repeatedly during the close work are at an especially
3). Patients from Asia demon- week and have a negative effect high risk. Studies have noted that
strated the greatest propensity on the individual’s quality of life. computer operators are particu-
for all symptoms of asthenopia larly susceptible to asthenopia
(figure 4). These data suggest that Which Patients Are At because a high percentage of com-
the symptoms of asthenopia are Greatest Risk? puter users with symptoms have
prevalent and that practitioners All patients are at risk for binocular vision problems and
should be proactively inquiring if developing asthenopia, but the ocular discomfort increases with
their patients are experiencing any extent of that risk varies from the extent of computer use.9-12
8
of these symptoms. individual to individual. Most In a study of 419 computer
Pain-related symptoms, such patients report symptoms of operators in India, 46% suffered
as headaches after near work vergence dysfunction between from asthenopia during or after
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4. working on a computer.13 In a Figure 4: Percentage of Patients Experiencing Particular
study conducted in Japan, 72% Asthenopic Symptom by Region† (NSIGHT 2009)
of office workers who work with
computers indicated that they 90
suffered from eye strain and/or 80
pain.14 These results were similar 70
to another Japanese study, where 60
70% of computer users reported 50
various degrees of visual fatigue.15 40
A Norwegian study of soft con- 30
tact lens wearers and those who 20
10
had undergone successful LASIK
0
surgery also reported 70% of Eye Strain Tired Eyes Headache After Pain Inside the Eye
patients experiencing some symp- Near Work
toms of asthenopia, with 63% Asia EU USA
complaining of headaches.16
Computer users are not the
only professions that are at risk
for developing asthenopia. A sur-
vey of 380 radiologists found that tive and vergence function among work and while engaging in recre-
36% reported eye strain.17 Profes- computer office workers over a ational activities. Many individu-
sions (e.g., lawyers, accountants) five-day work week, suggesting als may not realize the cumulative
that involve other types of inten- that those with dysfunctional bin- effect that this can have on their
sive near work, such as extensive ocular system may be particularly visual system and general sense
reading of printed materials, also susceptible to symptoms due to of well-being. The workplace is a
increase a person’s risk for devel- computer use.19 significant source of demanding
oping asthenopia.1 Those who are near-point tasks, with many jobs
not employed, including retirees, What Factors Are Leading to requiring the use of a computer
should not be viewed automati- an Increase in Asthenopia? for up to eight hours per day.20
cally as being at lower risk, as The performance of near-vision In 2003, 56% of those employed
they may be spending a substan- tasks occurs during school, at (77 million employees) used a
tial amount of time on the Inter-
net seeking employment, playing
video games, or keeping up with Figure 5: Asthenopic Symptoms that Occur Every Day or Three to
friends and family by using Face- Four Times Each Week in Patients* (NSIGHT 2009)
book and other forms of digital
social media. 70
63
Any individual with an undiag- 60 57
nosed binocular vision dysfunc-
tion is at significant risk for these 50
technology-induced visual impair- 42
40
ments as well. Research shows 33
that up to 56% of those 18 to 30
38 years of age exhibit signs and
20
symptoms associated with a func-
tional vision anomaly and more 10
than 40% of optometric doctoral
0
students may have a binocular Eye Strain Tired Eyes Headache After Pain Inside the Eye
vision dysfunction.6,18 Gur, Ron Near Work
and Heicklen-Klein found a sig-
nificant reduction in accommoda-
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5. Visual Evolution
computer at work. Some
Figure 6: Percentage of Patients* Who Found Their Asthenopic
occupations have a greater
Symptoms to be Bothersome (NSIGHT 2009)
proportion of computer
users, with the rates for
100
managers (about 80%) and
sales/office workers (67%) 80
being particularly high.21
Additionally, 77% of those 60
working from home were
40
computer users as well.22
Computer use is not the 20
only source of demanding
near-vision tasks. Reading of 0
Eye Strain Tired Eyes Headache After Pain Inside the Eye
work-related printed mate- Near Work
rials can also significantly
Slightly bothersome Very bothersome
contribute to the stressors
placed upon the vision sys-
tem.
An overabundance of
work-related near-vision tasks is companies add 3D capabilities to of vision correction in the past
not the only reason why astheno- their products, video game play- can experience discomfort while
pia is increasing in our patients. ing is also becoming a significant watching 3D.27 In one study of
The use of various electronic contributor to the amount of time young adults with normal binocu-
media, including cell phones, elec- spent viewing images in 3D.25 It lar vision, almost half experienced
tronic messaging and texting, the should be noted that the Nintendo significant visual fatigue and dis-
Internet, standard high definition 3DS system is a handheld device, comfort while viewing 3D.28 The
and 3D televisions, and 3D mov- forcing users to view 3D images American Optometric Associa-
ies and video games, increases the on a very small visually demand- tion estimates that between three
demands placed upon an already ing screen.25 and nine million (and possibly
taxed vision system. Figure 7 lists Three-dimensional viewing more) Americans have problems
useful statistics on the inroads contributes an additional level of appreciating the 3D experience.29
that these electronic media have burden to the overload of near- With an increase in these visually
made into peoples’ daily lives. vision tasks that visual systems demanding tasks, not only will
are already struggling to perform. the time spent performing vision-
The Future Is Now: 3D Individuals who have poor con- intensive activities continue to
With the success of the 3D film vergence, accommodation, and add stress to our work day and
Avatar and the development of visual tracking abilities—all of recreational activities, it will also
3D television and video games, which are necessary for single, require greater effort on our part
exposure to this form of entertain- clear and comfortable 3D view- to appreciate these many new and
ment is expected to increase in the ing—may experience blurred quality of life-changing technolo-
near future. In 2010, more than vision, diplopia, dizziness and gies.
20 3D feature films were released. headaches when exposed to this
ESPN is already providing pro- type of media. Consequences of Asthenopia
gramming in 3D (e.g., 18 World Only now are we beginning Asthenopia often includes
Cup matches), and the Discovery to study those who experience health-related consequences such
Network will launch its own symptoms while viewing 3D as headache, diplopia, pain in
3D channel in 2011.23 In 2010, content. Patients with this newly and around the eyes and overall
DirecTV began offering its sub- coined “3D Vision Syndrome” feelings of fatigue (figure 1). A
scribers three channels dedicated require further clinical interven- person’s quality of life can be
to 3D.24 tion and research.26 Even patients reduced as the pain and discom-
As Sony, Nintendo and other who haven’t required any kind fort associated with accomplish-
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6. Figure 7. Statistics on Electronic Media Use
Internet Approximately 80% of Americans have access to the Internet.45 Internet use is not the domain
of only the young, as 40% of Americans over the age of 66 years use it.45 In the U.S., an aver-
age of 17 hours per week is spent looking at the Internet, with 2.8 hours/week for light users
and 42 hours/week for heavy users.45 Over the last 10 years, Internet use has grown by 444%
globally, with the largest increases in Africa (2357%), Middle East (1825%), and Latin America/
Caribbean (1032%).46
Electronic messaging Over 1 billion texts and 247 billion e-mails are sent daily.47-48
Cell Phone Americans use their cell phones an average of 21 minutes/day. Thirty-five percent of 8-year-
olds in the U.S. own a cell phone.49 Internet access via cell phone increases annually.45
The top five countries with the most cell phones are: China (824.3 million), India (687.7 mil-
lion), U.S. (285.6 million), Russia (213.9 million) and Brazil (194.4 million). The top five coun-
tries with the highest percentage of cell phones per capita are: Russia (147%), Germany
(130%), United Kingdom (123%), Ukraine (118%) and Spain (111%).50-61
Smart phones are the next stage of development of cell phones. This newest-generation of
phone is evolving into a handheld computer that can also make phone calls. The amount
of programs (or apps) continues to grow, exponentially expanding the number of uses and
resulting in increased time using them. There are tens of thousands of apps available for
Android phones and more than 300,000 for the iPhone.
Gaming In 2012, the number of households worldwide with next-generation game consoles is expect-
ed to be 190 million, 80% of which will be connected to the Internet.62
ing particular activities can lead Practitioners need to be proactive point activities. If the practitioner
to patients no longer performing in determining the full extent of is not comfortable testing for
them. Hayes and associates found their patient’s near-vision activi- binocular disorders or in provid-
a small but significant relationship ties. It is also important to ask ing optometric vision therapy,
between ocular symptoms and appropriate questions regarding the patient should be referred
global measures of quality of life any asthenopic symptoms typi- to an eye care practitioner who
and a large association between cally associated with binocular is.63 Such practitioners have been
eye and physical symptoms.30 vision dysfunction. Because the certified by the College of Optom-
Symptoms associated with asthe- patient may not realize that etrists in Vision Development (an
nopia not only negatively affect not everyone sees the same way international organization) and
a person’s productivity and aca- they do and that what they are can be found by logging on to
demic performance, but also our experiencing is not normal, only www.covd.org.
ability to perform work-related a carefully taken case history All patients can be at risk for
and recreational tasks in an effi- can discover the problems your developing asthenopia, so prac-
cient and comfortable manner.1 patients may have in this area. titioners should educate them on
Answers received from the patient what it is and how it may develop.
Treatment of Asthenopia should then be reviewed together For those patients with a greater
Treatments for asthenopia are so it is clear that you and the risk for asthenopia based on their
available, but as with any health patient are using the same words visual demands, information
problem, the first step is diagno- to define the same things.31,63 should be provided concerning
sis. The simplest way to assess A comprehensive assessment of visual hygiene and various meth-
the presense of asthenopia due the individual’s binocular vision ods for modifying their near view-
to internal factors is to stress the system should be conducted for ing environment. Practitioners
accommodative and vergence sys- patients experiencing adverse should advise their at-risk patients
tems during your examination.1 reactions when performing near- to do the following:32-33
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7. Visual Evolution
• When performing computer Vision therapy helps the patient are dominant. This relatively
work, schedule periodic breaks to develop efficient visual skills new vision demand will con-
where they look away from the and vision information process- tinue to develop in magnitude as
monitor (generally for every 20 ing. The therapeutic procedures the time spent performing near
minutes of computer use have re-educate the brain so that the tasks increases and as the size
them look away for 20 seconds). individual can achieve single, of electronic displays continue
• Make sure there is proper clear, comfortable, binocular to decrease. The inclusion of 3D
lighting for performing near-point vision that improves eye coordina- viewing technologies only further
tasks. tion, focusing and eye movement, complicates the problem.
• Use proper ergonomics at the which ultimately enhances the As a large proportion of
workstation. 3D viewing experience.37-38 Stud- patients are candidates for devel-
• Use a larger font for onscreen ies have shown that office-based oping asthenopia, practitioners
text. treatment (in addition to home- need to determine their level of
• Blink often. based activities) is efficacious and risk by asking appropriate ques-
Practitioners can also advise long lasting.39-40 In these studies, tions about their occupations,
the patient that specially designed vision therapy intervention not the activities they pursue in their
near-point corrective lenses can only eliminated symptoms, but free time, and the amount of time
help relieve the symptoms associ- also improved functional abili- they spend performing near-point
ated with asthenopia. Strategies ties––both accommodation and tasks. Practitioners also need
specific to computer operators vergence. These remarkable to educate their patients about
should also be employed to reduce results lasted at least 12 months ways they can reduce their risk
the incidence of asthenopia. In a post intervention. For patients of developing asthenopia, such as
study by Kotegawa and associ- who cannot attend in-office by taking periodic breaks from
ates, computer operators (20-29 weekly vision therapy appoint- watching a computer screen and
years of age) who had originally ments, out-of-office therapy using paying attention to the ergonom-
been undercorrected or overcor- computer programs to improve ics of their workstation. The use
rected experienced a reduction in vision function are also effec- of corrective and therapeutic
headache, eye strain and tired eyes tive.26,39,41 lenses will often help to relieve
after receiving accurate refractive Non-presbyopic patients, who symptoms while implementing an
correction.34 The use of antireflec- are otherwise healthy but have individually prescribed program
tive film on monitors and the use accommodative insufficiency, of optometric vision therapy can
of certain colors (e.g., blue and can benefit from using multifocal frequently completely eliminate
white rather than green and red) spectacles to reduce the astheno- the asthenopia.
have also been shown to reduce pia associated with this focusing Asthenopia is a frequently
the incidence of asthenopia in dysfunction.42-43 Because some encountered visual impairment
some computer users.35-36 adult contact lenses wearers that can seriously threaten a
Asthenopia can be successfully exhibit decreased accommoda- patient’s quality of life. It inter-
treated with vision therapy. The tive abilities, consider using either feres with the quality of our work,
goals of vision therapy are to near reading prescriptions in our performance in school and
ensure that the patient can visu- conjunction with the single vision our enjoyment at play. Astheno-
ally function efficiently and com- contact lenses or multifocal con- pia is a prevalent condition that
fortably in school, at work and/or tact lenses if asthenopia develops deserves our full attention so
in athletic activities, as well as to for these patients.44 that, once diagnosed and treated,
relieve any symptoms. For accom- patients can pursue their interests
modative therapy, treatment Conclusions to the best of their abilities with-
increases the amplitude, speed, The world where people needed out experiencing pain or discom-
accuracy and ease of the focusing the ability to respond to stimuli fort. ■
response. At the end of therapy, that were distant, potentially
the patient should be able to make dangerous and constantly chang- Disclosure: Editorial assistance
rapid and accurate accommoda- ing has been replaced with one provided by BioScience Commu-
tive responses without fatigue. where sustained near-point tasks nications.
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