This presentation is the lecture material for The Real World, Introduction to Sociology, Chapter 2 on research methods.

2. • 2 Broad types of research:
– Quantitative research: translates the social world into
numbers that can be studied mathematically
• Example: United States Census
– Qualitative research: uses non-numerical data like
texts, interviews, photos, and recordings to help
understand social life
• Example: Anne Frank’s Diary
• This applies to pretty much ALL social sciences including
a variety of other fields such as education, criminal
justice, business/marketing research, etc.

3. • Most sociological research uses the scientific
method, which is the standard for acquiring and
verifying empirical (scientific) knowledge.
– Definition: The scientific method is a procedure for
acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting data
through observation and experiment.
• It provides researchers with a series of steps to
follow.
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5. • Before beginning actual research, the researcher
will begin with a literature review – which is an
overview of the research that has been done on
your topic.

6. • Steps in the scientific method:
– Form a hypothesis – a theoretical statement that will explain
the relationship between two variables. The researcher may
also form a research question instead of a hypothesis.
– Define the variables
– Predict possible outcomes
– Collect data (surveys, interviews, observations)
– Analyze the data
– Report the findings
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7. • Correlation: a relationship between two
variables
• Causation: a relationship where one variable
causes another variable to change
• Spurious correlation: a relationship that seems
to appear between two variables, but is actually
caused by some external, or intervening,
variable.

8. • Example:
– In Florida, there are a lot of palm trees and a lot of senior
citizens. You want to examine the relationship between the
variables.
– The variables in this case are palm trees and senior citizens.
You see that in states with fewer palm trees, there are
fewer senior citizens, and in Florida, where there are many
palm trees, there are many senior citizens.
– Therefore, there is a relationship between the variables.
Palm trees and senior citizens are correlated.

9. • Example:
– Palm trees and senior citizens are correlated. Now, you
want to see if there are any causations. Do palm trees cause
senior citizens?
– Well, you can conduct an experiment where you plant
100,000 palm trees in Ohio and monitor the population.
– Suppose you don’t see a difference in the number of senior
citizens. In that case, you can tell that palm trees aren’t
causing senior citizens. So what’s going on?
– There is a relationship, but it is not causal.

10. • Example:
– You start to investigate further, and you realize that palm
trees like warm weather. Senior citizens also like warm
weather.
– There was a third variable (temperature) that you didn’t
think of at the beginning. This is a spurious correlation.
– There is a relationship between palm trees and senior
citizens, but it is based on the fact that they both have a
relationship with a third variable—temperature.

11. • Research can lead to what Thomas Kuhn called
a paradigm shift, or a change in the way we
think about some aspect of life.
– For instance, we used to believe that the world was
flat, but new research gave us evidence that the
world was actually not flat. That research led us to
a paradigm shift in our thinking about the world.

12. • Other terms used by sociologists:
– Target population – the entire group of people you
want to study (ex: community college students)
– Sample – the part of the population that will actually
be studied. (ex: n=350 randomly selected students at
Gadsden State Community College)
• It would almost be impossible to survey every community
college student in the US.
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13. • There are different ways to collect information
about a topic, but each method has benefits and
limitations.
• When beginning a research project, it is
important to consider which method will work
best.

14. • One way to collect to data is through ethnography, a
naturalistic method based on studying people in their
own environment in order to understand the meanings
they give to their activities.
– Also, the written work that results from the study is
also called ethnography.
– Ethnography literally means “writing culture,” which
happens when researchers collect their observations
and write about their experiences in a scientific way.
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15. • Ethnography Continued:
– Ethnography is often a two-part activity: active
participation in and observation of a naturally occurring
setting, and a written account (field notes) of what goes
on there.
– In participant observation the researcher both observes
and becomes a member in a social setting.
• “Overt” observations – most common
• “Covert” observations – dangerous environments
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16. • Ethnography usually happens in two steps:
1. The researcher participates in and observes a setting.
2. Then the researcher makes a written account (field notes) of
what goes on there.
• It is important to take thorough and precise field notes when
conducting an ethnographic study. Leaving something out
because “it doesn’t seem important” can result in incomplete
data.
• Every detail is equally important, and recording these details
properly allows the researcher to draw conclusions at the end
of the study. Thus, writing field notes can be very time-
consuming.

17. • Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact
with respondents, and often can generate large
amounts of qualitative data.
– The researcher identifies the target population that
she wishes to study, and then selects a sample of
people to be interviewed from that population.
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18. • A closed-ended question imposes a limit on the
possible responses
• An open-ended question allows the answer to
take whatever from the respondent chooses
• Avoid…
– Leading questions
– Double-Barreled Questions
• Analyzing the data is much like ethnography
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19. • A leading question is a question that suggests the particular
answer or contains the information the examiner is looking
to have confirmed. Their use is restricted in order to reduce
the ability of the researcher to direct or influence the
answers presented.
• For example, this question is leading:
– Did you participate in the student protests on July 15?
• It suggests the location of the participant. The same
question in a non-leading form would be:
– Can you tell me where you were on July 15; the day of the student
protests?
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20. • A double-barreled question is when someone asks a question
that touches upon more than one issue, yet allows only for one
answer.
– This may result in inaccuracies in the attitudes being measured
for the question, as the respondent can answer only one of
the two questions, and cannot indicate which one is being
answered.
– Examples:
• "Please agree or disagree with the following statement:
Cars should be faster and safer."
• "How satisfied are you with your pay and job conditions?"
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21. • Analyzing the Data
– Reflexivity – how does the identity of the researcher
influence the surroundings?
– Coding – Break down field-note data into categories –
look for patterns/relationships between the
categories to form a theory.
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22. • Surveys are questionnaires that are administered to a
sample of respondents selected from a target
population.
– Survey research tends to look at large-scale social
patterns and employs statistics and other
mathematical means of analysis.
• Likert Scale – a way of organizing question categories on
a survey question so that the respondent can choose an
answer along a continuum.
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23. • Experiments are formal tests of specific variables
and effects that are performed in a controlled
setting where all aspects of the situation can be
controlled.
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24. • Many experiments involve using an experimental
group, which is the part of the test group that
receives the experimental treatment, and a
control group, which is the part of the test group
that is allowed to continue without intervention
so that it can be compared with the experimental
group.
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25. • A researcher will investigate whether an
independent variable causes changes in the
dependent variable.
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26. • Existing Sources refer to any data that has already been
collected by earlier researchers and is available for
future research. This can include sources such as census
data, newspapers, photography, and cultural artifacts.
• Using existing data is usually less involved than
collecting original data and also gives researchers access
to distant places and times.
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27. • Non-Academic Uses of Research: The research
methods described in this chapter are often
applied outside the field of sociology. Some
examples include the US Census, political
campaign offices, business, and market research.
Beware!
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28. • Objectivity: (not subjectivity) Most sociologists
believe that they should not allow their personal
beliefs to influence their research. (Leave out
your biases)
– Max Weber wrote the classic sociological statement
on this issue. He coined the phrase value-free
sociology, an ideal whereby researchers identify facts
without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases
to interfere.
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29. • Ethics:
– The American Sociological Association has developed its own
set of code of ethics to assist researchers avoid bias, adhere to
professional standards, and protect respondents from harm.
– Anytime you work with human subjects – ethics are very
important.
– Know the risks involved in your research
– Confidentiality!!!!
– Informed Consent
– IRB’s (Institutional Review Boards)
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30. • The American Sociological Association has developed its own
code of ethics to help researchers avoid bias and adhere to
professional standards and to protect respondents from harm.
• It is always important to consider the outcome of your study.
– If you administer a drug, is there a possibility that someone could die?
– If you ask questions about sensitive childhood memories, will the
respondent have a traumatic experience answering them?
• Adhering to the code of ethics helps you avoid situations that
could potentially harm your respondents or even you yourself.

31. • Most universities where research is conducted
also have an institutional review board, a group
of scholars within a university who meet
regularly to review and approve the research
proposals of their colleagues and make
recommendations for how to protect human
subjects.