Religion as an Anthropological Concept
Scott E. Antes 1996-2009
Defining religion. Dozens of useful definitions exist for the
term “religion”. For our purposes, however, I define religion as
the belief in spirit beings or superhuman forces that directly
influence human conduct, typically expressed through symbolic,
ritual, and social behavior. This substantive (what something
is, not what it does) definition works very well for the
following reasons:
(1) It is all-inclusive; it defines the general concept of
religion—including everything from animism to monotheism.
(2) It identifies religion as a cultural universal, something
common to all human societies past and present. To the best of
our knowledge, a belief in spiritual beings is and always has
been a fundamental component of human culture.
(3) It simply describes what religion is (substantive definition),
without complicating itself by trying to explain what religion
does (functional definition).
(4) It does not confuse the concept of religion with any
particular system of religion. Religious systems differ and
continually change, whereas this definition of religion as a
concept essentially is timeless.
(5) It is an elementary, simple—yet not oversimplified—
definition that is easily applied and remembered.
Other definitions to consider:
Lydia Black 1997: “Religion is an ideological system of explicit
and implicit notions and ideas related to reality accepted as true
but unable to be verified empirically.” (Religion as a belief
system.) I like this definition, but it overlooks the most
fundamental component of religion, the belief in spirit beings.
Clifford Geertz 1965: “A religion is (1) a system of symbols
which acts to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting
moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions
of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these

conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods
and motivations seem uniquely realistic.” (Religion as a system
of symbols.)
J. Milton Yinger 1971: “Religion…can be defined as a system
of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people
struggles with (the) ultimate problems of human life.”
(Religion as an institution.)
Religious systems:
Ancestor Veneration. The practice of venerating deceased
ancestors. Note: Some authors label this practice as “ancestor
worship,” which is incorrect. Worship is reserved for gods
(deities).
Animism. A religious system based on the belief that every
living thing possesses a spirit, or soul, that animates it. In this
context, “living” things include not only animals and plants, but
such entities as the wind, the waters, the earth, the sky, etc.
Animatism. A religious system from the South Pacific based on
the belief in an impersonal force called mana, which all things
possess, but in varying degrees. The most powerful people in
society are those whom its population believe to have the most
mana. Believers consider mana to be something inherent, not
something we can obtain on our own.
Atheism. A religious system that is not based on the belief in
any god or gods. Atheism also is the non-religious (secular)
view that no god or gods exist.
Theism. A religious system based on the belief in one or more
gods. This religious system tends to be prevalent at the
chiefdom and state levels of social organization. Examples of
theism include Judaism, Mithraism, Christianity, Islam,
Hinduism, and Buddhism.
Polytheism. A religious system based on the belief on more
than one god, usually many gods. Most likely the earliest form
of theism,
commonly found in chiefdoms and early state level societies.
The collection of gods in a polytheistic society is called a
pantheon.

Monotheism. A religious system based on the belief in one god,
a supreme being. A comparatively recent form of theism,
widespread in contemporary state level societies.
Paganism. A term not used very often in anthropology, because
it is ambiguous and not precisely defined. Often used to
describe a religious system based on “nature worship.” As best
we know, the terms “pagan” and “paganism” did not exist in
English prior to the 1600s.
Totemism. A religious belief system, often part of an animistic
religious system in clan-oriented societies, that recognizes the
apical ancestor (progenitor), or totem, of each clan. Totems
might be animals, plants, objects, or places.
Note: Terms highlighted invioletare most important to my ANT
102 classes.
Religion and Action. Religion, as a system of beliefs, cannot
stand alone. For one to simply believe is inadequate; a person
must act upon those beliefs in order to express and reinforce the
validity of those beliefs. A specific religious system, then, is a
social institution that prescribes both beliefs and practices for
its followers.
Functions. Religion can perform a multitude of sociocultural
functions. For example, it:
(1) Establishes a relationship between the spiritual and the
physical world. In many cases, this relationship distinguishes
the natural from the “supernatural,” the “sacred” from the
“profane.”
(2) Explains otherwise unexplainable events or phenomena,
such as the origin of the universe, the purpose of humankind,
etc. (Scientific explanations do not satisfy everyone.)
(3) Provides and reinforces a system of values relative to
morality, ethics, legitimacy, judgment, and meaning.
(4) Satisfies emotional needs; offers hope for the future or
specifies what the future will bring.
(5) Serves to ensure social participation/interaction; provides a
sense of community.
(6) Helps to preserve cultural knowledge and tradition.

(7) Helps people cope with adversity. (“It’s God’s will,” “It’s
in God’s hands,” etc.)
(8) Provides alternatives to mortality, avenues for survival after
death, through belief in an afterlife.
(9) Might be—and has been—used by charismatic or influential
leaders to control or manipulate followers.
(10) Might be—and has been—used to justify atrocities against
humankind and the unbridled exploitation of Earth’s natural
resources.
Religious specialists—those who, part-time or full-time, devote
themselves vocationally to a particular religious ideology,
system, or tradition, for our purposes are categorized into the
following groups:
Charismatic Leader. One who has the ability to compel
followers to follow him/her without coercion.
Divine King/Queen. Hereditary position, must be physically
perfect (no blemishes or physical defects) in order to obtain it.
The only one in society who has access to divine powers. In
some societies, the divine king cannot grow old, and is ritually
killed at the first sign of weakness. New king is seen as
reincarnation of previous king.
Diviner. One who seeks to obtain solutions to immediate
problems or knowledge of future events through mechanical or
manipulative (non-empirical, non-testable, i.e. non-scientific)
means, often invoking transhuman or superhuman powers in the
process.
Medium. A person believed to have the ability to communicate
with spirits of the dead. For a fee, enters an altered state in
order to become an intermediary between the living and the
dead.
Messiah. Uniquely empowered individuals through whom a
desperate people are relayed divine instructions,
encouragement, and a promise of deliverance from their
oppressors. May function as messengers, prophets, and
charismatic leaders.
Necromancer. One who foretells the future or uses divination

by means of communication with the dead.
Neoshaman. Often referred to as a “New Age” shaman.
Someone who draws upon and combines the knowledge,
practices, and traditions of any number of various outside
cultures. Usually someone who has rejected previous beliefs of
an organized religion.
Priest/Priestess. A person having the authority to perform and
administer religious rites. Usually associated with a religious
institution and a hierarchical belief system. May feel a
“calling” to the profession, but must go through training to
learn the “trade.”
Prophet. One who speaks by divine inspiration and revelation,
or as the interpreter through whom the will of a god is
expressed. A prophet is born into the position.
Rabbi. Hebrew for “my master.” A teacher of Jewish law,
ritual, and traditions. The spiritual leader of a Jewish
congregation and chief religious specialist of a synagogue.
Shaman. Part-time religious practitioner who manipulates the
spirits for divination and curing. Must achieve altered state of
consciousness in order to perform his/her function. Everyone
may have access to this position. May be elected by the spirits,
but must undergo training. Can deal with evil as well as
benevolent spirits, but only for good of the community.
Functions as priest, prophet, healer, magician, and one who
brings good luck.
Sheikh (Sheik). Arabic, literally meaning “elder.” In our case,
a scholar of Islam, a member of an Islamic monastic order. (A
Muslim friend from Saudia Arabia told me that any Muslim who
has a question regarding Islam always consults a sheikh for the
answer.) Only males have access to this position. (Note: I have
found mention of past female sheikhs, but without references.)
Sorcerer. One who deals with evil spirits in order to inflict
harm on other individuals. An ordinary person who learns the
trade. Uses material objects in doing so. One who performs
“black” magic.
Witch. Hereditary occupation; inherently evil. (Note: This

definition does not apply to Wiccans. Additionally, for our
purposes, notions of white—good—witches do not apply.) In
the West, sometimes associated with satanism. No redeeming
qualities. Has the power to injure people without material
means. Leaves no evidence. Tends to operate at night.
Believed to fly. Not well tolerated in society; often no mercy
shown to witches. Historically, outsiders and misfits have been
accused of being witches. Note: Not all cultures view witches
as human. The Tlingit, for example, saw witches as malevolent
nocturnal spirits who were able to assume human form (Emmons
1991:398 The Tlingit Indians).
Note: From one culture or subculture to another, the above
terms (or their linguistic equivalents) might have different
meanings.
Key terms (in addition to those used or listed above): ceremony,
cosmogony, cosmology, dualistic, heathen, magic, monistic,
monotheism, myth, neopaganism, paganism, prayer, profane,
rite/ritual, sacred, sacred objects, sacred sites, sacrifice,
secular, secular humanism, tabu. Additional terms will be
discussed in class.
Keep in mind that, as anthropologists—as social scientists, we
address religion as a concept, an ideology, a belief system, a
universal component of culture. We examine and cross-
culturally compare its various and diverse tenets, beliefs,
institutions, functions, and practices. We approach the topic of
religion objectively. We do not make judgments concerning the
religious beliefs or practices of other cultures. We do not
impose personal religious beliefs on our colleagues, our
students, or upon people of other cultures.