3. Introduction
• An industrial revolution
• From agriculture and craft to large-scale manufacturing
• Textiles
• Capital-intensive enterprises
• Adam Smith & Karl Marx
• Urbanization
• Family farms and businesses give way to wage Labor
• Thomas Jefferson’s fear
• New forms of energy
• Coal and Steam
• Led to unprecedented economic growth
• Altered the balance of humanity
4. Introduction
• Mechanization
• Gains in productivity
• Shifted the basis of the economy from Agriculture to Industry
• The intensification of human labor:
• Labor loses control
• New social classes and new social tensions
• Capitalists; Bourgeoisie; Proletariat
• “Industry”—from industriousness to an economic system
• Government Relies on Taxes not tariffs for funding
5. Introduction
• Partial causes
• Colonial Empire
• Economic expansion
• Expanding networks of trade and finance
• New markets for goods and sources for raw materials
• Population growth
• More
6. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Why England?
• Natural, economic, and cultural resources
• Small and secure island
• Ample supply of coal, rivers, and a developed canal system
7. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Why England?
• The commercialization of agriculture
• New techniques and crops, changes in property holding
• Yielded more food for a growing population
• Concentration of property in fewer hands
• Increasing urban workforce competing for jobs
• Growing supply of available capital
• Well-developed banking and credit institutions
• London as leading center for international trade
• Technological innovations favored creation of factories
8. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Why England?
• Investment and entrepreneurship
• Pursuit of wealth seen as a worthy goal
• Domestic and foreign markets
• The British were voracious consumers
• A well-integrated domestic market
• A constantly improving transportation system
• British colonies provided cheap raw materials
• British colonies provided expanding commodities markets
9. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Why England?
• Favorable political climate
• Foreign policy responded to commercial needs of the nation
• Domestic policy favored creation of industry with minimal focus on
reform before 1850
• Production for export rose 80 percent between 1750 and 1770 as a
result of expanding colonial markets
• The British merchant marine and navy
11. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Innovation in the textile industries
• The British prohibited the import of East Indian cottons protecting
the domestic market
• Textile manufacturers imported raw cotton from India and the
American South but did not compete for the final product
12. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Innovation in the textile industries
• Revolutionary breakthroughs
• John Kay—the flying shuttle (1733)
• John Hargreaves—the spinning jenny (1764)
• Richard Arkwright—the water frame (1769)
• Samuel Crompton—the spinning mule (1799)
• Eli Whitney—the cotton gin (1793)
13. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Innovation in the textile industries
• A revolution in clothing
• Cotton was light, durable, and washable
• Large domestic and foreign market for cotton cloth
• Factory working conditions and the factory acts
14. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Innovation in the textile industries
• Textile machines
• First machines inexpensive enough to be used by spinners in their
homes
• As machines grew in size, they were located in mills and factories
• By 1780, British cotton textiles flooded the world market
17. Economic Depression in Britain
• The increased industrialization of the country, combined with the demobilization of the
British Army following the Napoleonic War, led to mass unemployment.
• The Corn Laws led to massive increases in the price of bread.
• measures enforced in the United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846, which imposed restrictions and tariffs on
imported grain.
• designed to keep grain prices high to favor domestic producers.
• Poor people could not afford bread
• The repeal of Income Tax meant that the war debt had to be recovered by taxing
PROFITS MADE IN TRADING COMMODITIES.
• The commodities tax forced prices even higher.
• 1816 was unusually wet and cold, producing a very poor harvest.
19. Ned Lud
• Ned Lud-- a weaver from Anstey
• In 1779 after being whipped for idleness, smashed two knitting frames in what was described
as a "fit of passion".
• News of the incident spread, and whenever frames were sabotaged, people would jokingly
say "Ned Lud did it".
• By 1812, the organized frame-breakers who became known as the Luddites had begun using
the name King Lud or Captain Dick for their mythical leader.
• Movement centered around Nottingham. Captain Dick was reputed to live in Sherwood
Forest like Robin Hood.
• Followers destroyed machinery used in the factory system.
• “Luddite” beCAME synonymous with anti-progress
22. Richard Arkwright and the Water
Frame
Arkwright’s factory system:
•Two thirteen-hour shifts per day including
an overlap.
•Bells rang at 5 am and 5 pm and the gates were shut
precisely at 6 am and 6 pm.
•Anyone who was late not only could not
work that day but lost an extra day's pay.
•Whole families were employed, with large numbers of
children from
the age of seven, although this was increased to ten.
•He allowed worker’s a week’s holiday a year, but on
condition
that they could not leave the village.
24. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• Coal and iron
• Technological changes
• Coke smelting, rolling, and puddling
• Substitution of coal for wood
• James Watt and Matthew Boulton—the steam engine
26. The Industrial Revolution in
Britain, 1760–1850
• The coming of railways
• George Stephenson and the Stockton-to-Darlington line (1825)
• Railway construction as enterprise
• Toil and technology
• Steam and speed as a new way of life
27. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• A different model of industrialization
• Reasons for the delay
• Lack of raw materials, especially coal
• Poor national systems of transportation
• Little readily accessible capital
28. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Economic climate changes after 1815
• Population growth (parts of France, Belgium, Rhineland, Saxony,
Silesia, and Bohemia)
• New railway construction
31. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Economic climate changes after 1815
• Governments played a major role in subsidizing industry
• Subsidies to private companies (railroads and mining)
• Incentives for and laws favorable to industrialization
• Limited liability laws
32. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Economic climate changes after 1815
• Mobilizing capital
• Joint-stock investment banks
• Société Générale (Belgium, 1830s)
• Creditanstalt (Austria,1850s)
• Crédit Mobilier (1850s)
• Promoting invention and technological development
• State-established educational systems
33. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Industrialization after 1850
• Individual British factories remained small, but output was
tremendous
• Iron industry the largest in the world
• Continental changes
• Mostly in transport, commerce, and government policy
• Free trade and the removal of trade barriers
• Guild controls relaxed or abolished
• Expanding communications
34. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Industrialization after 1850
• Continental changes
• New chemical processes, dyestuffs, and pharmaceuticals
• New sources of energy—electricity and oil
• Internal combustion engine (Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, 1880s)
• Eastern Europe
• Developed into concentrated, commercialized agriculture
• The persistence of serfdom
35. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Industrialization after 1850
• The industrial core
• Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland
• The industrial periphery
• Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, and Serbia
36. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Industry and empire
• European nations begin to control the national debts of other
countries
• Where trade agreements could not be made, force prevailed
• New networks of trade and interdependence
37. The Industrial Revolution
on the Continent
• Industry and empire
• The world economy divided
• Producers of manufactured goods (Europe)
• Suppliers of raw materials and buyers of finished goods (everyone else)
• Toward a global economy
38. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Population Growth
• Causes
• Fatal diseases became less virulent
• Edward Jenner and smallpox vaccination (1796)
• Improved sanitation
• Less expensive foods of high nutritional value
• Rising fertility
39. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Life on the land: the peasantry
• Rural poverty
• Harsh conditions of the countryside
• Millions of tiny farms produced a bare subsistence
• Great Famine of 1845–1849
• Potato blight
• No alternative food source
• At least 1 million Irish died of starvation
• Forced 1.5 million people to leave Ireland for good
41. Cotter (cottier) System
• Small farmer rented 1.5 acres of land
• Absentee landlords
• Payment in labor
• 1841 = 500,000 peasant farmers and 1.5 – 1.7 million dependents
• Less farmland more grazing for herds of cattle raised for slaughter and
sale to British public
• “The Alm ig hty, inde e d, se nt the po tato blig ht, but the Eng lish cre ate d
the Fam ine . ” – Jo hn Mitche ll
42. Avoiding Moral Hazard
Public Works projects employed 500,000 Irish: not well administered
•Corn Meal: Required two grindings– Irish did not understand how to cook it and could
not make the first grind.
•“Market” provide food
•Indoor and Outdoor relief
• Workhouses
• Soup kitchens
•Ireland continued to export food during the height of the famine
44. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Life on the land: the peasantry
• The role of the state
• Became more sympathetic to commercialized agriculture
• Encouraged the elimination of small farms and the creation of larger farms
• Serfdom
• Landowners and serfs had little incentive to improve farming or land
management
• Serfdom made it difficult to buy and sell land freely
45. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Life on the land: the peasantry
• Industrialization in the countryside
• Improved communication networks
• Government intervention in the countryside
• Centralized bureaucracies
46. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Life on the land: the peasantry
• Rural violence
• Captain Swing, southern England (1820s)
• Insurrections against landlords, taxes, and laws curtailing customary
rights
• Governments seemed incapable of dealing with rural discontent
47. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• The urban landscape
• Urbanization moved from northwest Europe to the southeast
• London’s population grew from 676,000 (1750) to 2.3 million (1850),
that of Paris from 560,000 to 1.3 million
• Overcrowding and poor sanitation
• Construction of housing lagged well behind population growth
48. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Industry and environment in the nineteenth century
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Fertile breeding grounds for cholera, typhus, and tuberculosis
49. View of London with Saint Paul’s Cathedral in the Distance
by William Henry Crome
50. The Social Consequences
of Industrialization
• Industry and environment in the nineteenth century
• The problems of the cities posed dangers that were not just social
but political
• Social surveys and studies
• Critics of the urban scene
51. The Middle Classes
• Balzac as observer
• The French and Industrial Revolutions had replaced one aristocracy
with another
• Who were the middle classes?
• Not a homogeneous group in terms of income or occupation
• Upward mobility impossible without education
• Easier in Britain than on the Continent
52.
53. The Middle Classes
• Who were the middle classes?
• Respectability
• A code of behavior
• Financial independence
• Providing for family
• Avoiding gambling and debt
• Merit and character
• Aspirations and codes not social realities
54. The Middle Classes
• Private life and middle-class identity
• The family
• A well-governed household served as an antidote to the confusion of
the business world
• Women stayed at home, kept household, raised children, engaged
in charitable and church activities
55. The Middle Classes
• Gender and the cult of domesticity
• The respectable home
• The “separate sphere”
• Women were supposed to live in subordination to men
• Boys educated in secondary schools, girls educated at home
• The idea of legal inequality between men and women
56. The Middle Classes
• Gender and the cult of domesticity
• Middle-class identity—neither aristocratic nor working-class values
• The “cult of domesticity”
• Central to middle-class Victorian thinking about women
• The reassessment of femininity
58. The Middle Classes
• Gender and the cult of domesticity
• Outside the home
• Few options to earn a living
• Voluntary societies and campaigns for social reform
• Queen Victoria (r. 1837–1901)
• Reflected contemporary feminine virtues of moral probity and dutiful
domesticity
• Successful queen because she embodied middle-class virtues
59. The Middle Classes
• “Passionlessness”: gender and sexuality
• Victorian sexuality usually seen as synonymous with anxiety,
prudishness, and ignorance
• Beliefs about sexuality came from convictions about separate
spheres
• Scientists taught that specific characteristics were inherent to each
sex
61. The Middle Classes
• “Passionlessness”: gender and sexuality
• Women’s moral superiority embodied in their “passionlessness”
• Absence of reliable contraceptives
63. The Middle Classes
• Middle-class life in public
• Houses and furnishings as symbols of material prosperity
• Suburban life
• Moved to the west side of cities
• Lived away from the city but managed the affairs of their city
• Leisure
64. Working-Class Life
• General observations
• Working classes divided into several subgroups
• Some movement from unskilled to skilled (required children with
education)
• Movement from skilled to unskilled due to technological change
65. Working-Class Life
• Working-class women in the industrial landscape
• Problems observed
• Promiscuous mixing in workshops
• Children left unattended
• Industrial accidents
67. Working-Class Life
• Working-class women in the industrial landscape
• Women’s work not new—industrialization made it more visible
• Women workers were paid less and were less troublesome
• Gender division of labor
• Most women labored at home or in small workshops (“sweatshops”)
• Domestic service
68. Working-Class Life
• Working-class women in the industrial landscape
• Working-class sexuality
• Different from middle-class counterpart
• Increase in illegitimate births
• Weaker family ties
• The collapse of the family?
70. Contagious Diseases Acts 1864-
1869
• British Parliament concerned about STD’s among men, particularly
armed forces.
• Decided women were to blame
• Police officers could arrest prostitutes and compulsory venereal disease
examinations
• Refusal or positive result required confinement in “Lock Hospital” until
cured (up to a year)
• “It is men, only men, from the first to the last that we have to do with! To please a man I did wrong at first, then I
was flung about from man to man. Men police lay hands on us. By men we are examined, handled, doctored. In
the hospital it is a man again who makes prayer and reads the Bible for us. We are had up before magistrates
who are men, and we never get out of the hands of men till we die!”
71. Working-Class Life
• A life apart: class consciousness
• The factory created common experiences and difficulties
• Denied skilled laborers pride in their crafts
• Guild protections abolished
• The factory
• Long hours under dirty and dangerous conditions
• The imposition of new routines and discipline
72. Working-Class Life
• A life apart: class consciousness
• Working-class vulnerability
• Unemployment, sickness, accidents, and family problems
• The varying price of food
• Seasonal unemployment
• Markets for manufactured goods were small and unstable
• Cyclical economic depressions
• Severe agricultural depressions
75. “Less Eligibility”
• Poor Law of 1834
• Make workhouses a “deterrent” to people seeking “poor relief”
• Conditions in the workhouse were to be worse than the worse
possible working conditions outside the workhouse
• “Pauperism” caused by the recklessness and improvidence of the
people and the “barbarism of the Irish”
76. Working-Class Life
• A life apart: class consciousness
• Working-class survival
• Families worked several small jobs
• Joined self-help societies and fraternal associations
• Early socialist movement
77.
78. Working-Class Life
• A life apart: class consciousness
• Social segregation of the city
• Implied that working people lived a life apart from others
• Class differences embedded in experience and beliefs
80. Conclusion
• The Industrial Revolution as major turning point in the history of
the world
• The global balance of power
• Technology as progress
• The new wealth and the new poverty
• Social identities and class consciousness
Hinweis der Redaktion
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760–1850
The Industrial Revolution represents both a revolution in the economic structure of Europe and a transformation in European society. While the Industrial Revolution produced such tangibles as steam engines, railroads, and the factory system, it also brought with it the formation of social class and, equally important, class consciousness. The existence of a significant natural resource base, the enclosure movement, entrepreneurial skill, a commercial society, wide and varied domestic and foreign markets, and a government willing to back industrial enterprise all combined to allow England to become the first industrial nation and, by 1850, the “Workshop of the World.” The English also made numerous technological advances in certain industries, specifically cotton manufacture and coal mining, which allowed them to open up additional opportunities to facilitate greater opportunities for innovation.
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent
Our image of the Industrial Revolution, however, is often clouded by visions of factories outfitted with steam engines, belching acrid smoke into the overcrowded cities of England, France, and Germany. What such an image sometimes ignores is that industrialization was not monolithic. Many employers were hesitant to use steam-driven machinery. Industrialization was erratic and sporadic; it did not follow a singular path. Regional variations in the acceptance of machinery or the factory system meant that some industries were mechanized or rationalized, while others were not. Furthermore, the revolution in industry was an unplanned event; many nineteenth-century critics interpreted industrialization as a speedily passing phase of human existence.
The Social Consequences of Industrialization
The Industrial Revolution also brought many hardships. Some of these problems were created by the revolution itself while others were exacerbated by it. New wealth meant many new opportunities for captains of industry and those that were employed by them. But new wealth also meant overcrowding, poor housing, poor working conditions, long hours, and low wages for most working-class people who were not skilled workers. Although European historians can identify the “middling folk” and the “common people” well before the onset of industrialization, it was only during the nineteenth century that these social orders took on new meanings as social classes, with distinct systems of values and worldviews.
The immediate consequences of the Industrial Revolution highlight the fact that the revolution in industry was unplanned and unregulated. Men and women of differing social classes had to adjust to a changed environment, an environment that was their experience, not just the backdrop to their experience. One thing is certain: no one was left untouched by the social implications of the Industrial Revolution.
