1. Byzantium, Islam and the western European
territories of Christendom

2. Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest,
"TURKEY: HAGIA SOPIA, 1852. - The
Nave Of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
(Constantinople). Lithograph By Louis
Haghe, 1852.", accessed 8 Oct 2012,
http://quest.eb.com/images/140_17071
31
Muhammad’s entry into
Mecca
Illuminated Aachen
Gospels, c. 820 C.E.

3. Medieval or Middle Ages

 17th century intellectuals wanted to distinguish their
own ―modern‖ age from the period following the
―age of antiquity‖ (ancient civilizations of Greece
and Rome in particular).
 In the ―Middle Ages‖
 Foundations of modern political institutions were laid
 Relationships between Judaism, Christianity and Islam
were first articulated
 Between 500 and 1100 C.E. Western Civilizations are
dominated by the interactions and conflicts of these
three civilizations

4. The Byzantine Empire

 A successor to the Roman state
 Emperor Justinian (R. 527-565)
 General Heraclius the Elder and the ―Re-conquest‖ of
Rome
 Early Threats and challenges
 The Sassanid Persian Empire
 Conflicts with Rome since 220’s
 War broke out again in 526-27 through 532
 Theft of the relic of the original cross when Sassanids took it
from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem in 614.
 Heraclius routed the Persians (627) and took it back

6. Byzantium

 Justinian’s Reign:
 Codification of Roman law into 4 volumes, the Corpus
Juris Civilis
 Political philosophy; ―What pleases the prince has the
force of law‖
 A sovereign’s powers are delegated to him by the people
 The state is a corporate body not the extension of an
individual’s private property
 Orthodox Christianity is only legal religion in the
Empire

8. Justinian’s Reconquest

 535: Theodoric the Ostrogoth’s Kingdom in Rome
overthrown by Justinian.
 Justinian’s Army overextended
 Drastically strained imperial resources in Byzantium
 Oppressive taxes resulted
 Distraction from enemies closer to home (Persians)
 Conflict with Church in Western Roman Empire

9. The Mediterranean World under Justinian, 527–565

10. Consequences

 Constantinople threatened; armies withdrawn from
Italy and North Africa;
 Vital supply lines for the aqueducts to Rome were
cut (Rome was without water);
 In 568 the Lombards conquered Northern Italy and
some territories in the South East
 Conflict between Visigoths and Latins in Hispania
(Spain) weakened each other.
 Visigoths conquered and absorbed by Islam.

11. Byzantium Conflicts

 Heraclius at war with the Persians to take back
Jerusalem (627)
 Muslim-Arab armies occupied territories of the
Middle East and Persia in the name of Islam 629-
1050’s
 Besieged Constantinople 676-678
 Umayyad Navy defeated by Greek fire
 Among the dead: Eyup, Muhammad’s standard bearer
and the last of his companions

13. Leo II & Greek Fire

 Leo III used Greek Fire to defeat the Arab
(Umayyad) siege of Constantinople (717-718)
 Greek Fire: exact recipe unknown
 Byzantium conquered much of Turkey from the
Arabs

14. Leo III (717-741)


15. Leo II & Iconoclast Controversy

 8th century, most Christians insisted that images were an aid to
worship not objects of worship.
 Iconoclasts argued that honoring images was blasphemy and
Christ’s divinity could not be represented visually.
 726, Leo III issued a decree against icons and ordered
destruction of a statue of Christ near the Hagia Sophia.
Constantine V (his son) convened church council in 754 to
condemned worship of any images.
 Created discord with Church in Rome over power to decide
church policies
 implication that Pope was an idolater.
 Pitted Emperor against monasteries
 Leo confiscated much Church property and wealth helping
him to pay for wars

17. Byzantium:
Tradition vs. Innovation

 Religion
 Fear of heresy impeded freedom of thought
 Reinforced unity of Constantinople’s Christian culture in a
cosmopolitan urban center
 Hagia Sophia architecture emphasized the mysteries of holy
knowledge imparted to Christ and to the soul of the Believer
 Links with Hellenistic past: Byzantine schools based instruction on
Greek literature
 Studied Plato and historical prose of Thucydides
 Aristotle and logic were less respected (ultimately banned in 1118)
 Tradition prized more highly than originality
 Preservation more important than innovation
 Byzantine education open to laity and to women

18. Interior of Hagia Sophia

19. Imperial Gate

20. Mosaic above Imperial Gate in the Hagia Sophia depicts Emperor Leo VI
adoring Jesus.

22. Islam


23. Muhammad: Prophet and Founder

 Born 570 C.E. on the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi
Arabia)
 Orphaned at 6
 Caravan travels with uncle brought Muhammad into
contact with Jews and Christians.
 Arabian Peninsula peoples were polytheistic
 Married Khadija at 25; ran her caravans

24. Revelations To Muhammad

 Age 41 (611 C.E.)
 Receives revelations from Angel Gabriel.
 Allah is the same deity as the Jewish and Christian
God.
 God is one.
 Islam (submission to God’s will) is the final revelation
of God to humanity.

25. Islam

 Emphasizes the centrality of the bond between Allah
and his followers
 ―There is no God but God and Mohammed is the
messenger of God‖
 5 Pillars of Muslim Religious Practice
 Confession of faith
 Recitation of prayers 5 times daily
 Giving alms (charity)
 Fasting (from dawn to dusk during Ramadan)
 The Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) at least once

26. The HiJira

 622 C.E. Muhammad moved to Medina with his
family and followers (year 1 on the Muslim calendar)
 630 C.E. Muhammad conquered Mecca and
destroyed the idols of the Kaaba

27. The Qur’an

 Literally translated: Recitation
 Muhammad did not write down his revelations
 His followers memorized them and wrote them down after he died
 Written in Arabic
 Divided into 114 surah (chapters)
 Human beings born in the purity of God & free of original sin
 Righteous are promised paradise
 Wicked and unbelievers are promised hell
 Men and women equal but men are a degree higher than women
 Women must veil their bodies
 Influenced both art and architecture in the Islamic world

28. 9th century C.E. manuscript of Qur’an one of the oldest manuscripts
Of the Qur’an in existence, Telyashayakh Mosque, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Text from 1st century (HiJira) 7th century C.E.
David Collection, Copenhagen

29. The Spread of Islam

 Islam offered rules of conduct that were easy to
understand and follow:
 Less ritualistic than Judaism or Christianity
 Less complex theology
 Islam welcomed everyone regardless of birth,
ethnicity or socio-economic class;
 Did not condemn material possessions.

30. Age of the Caliphs Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632/A.H. 1-11
Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661/A.H. 11-40
Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750/A.H. 40-129

31. Mosque of Uqba, in Tunisia
Built in 670 C.E.
The mosque is over 29,000 sq. ft.

32. Early Schism

 Muhammad never designated a successor
 Abu Bakir claimed to be Muhammad’s successor
 Abu Bakir chosen as 1st Caliph following Muhammad’s
death
 Ruled from 632 to 634
 Sunni Islam
 Ali ibn Abi Talib Muhammad’s son-in-law and nephew
claimed that he was Muhammad’s successor
 Led Muslim’s who claimed that leadership of Islam should
fall to Muhammad’s kin
 Assassinated in 661 C.E. while praying
 Founder of Shia Islam

33. Islamic Law

 Core Islamic texts Qur’an and Hadith (sayings and
deeds of the Prophet Muhammad) constitute the
sharia (path to follow)
 Leadership
 Imams (prayer leaders)
 Mullahs (scholars trained in Muslim law to interpret
the sharia)

34. Muslim Theocracies

 Qur’an is the eternal and absolute word of God
 There is no separation between sacred and secular
society
 In Islamic countries, the Qur’an is both secular and
religious authority

35. Muslim Caliphates

 Caliphate = dominion of a successor (to Muhammad)
 The Head of State and his officials are representatives
of the people of Islam
 They must rule according to constitutional
(Constitution of Medina) and Sharia law.
 Sunni Islam: the Caliph should be elected by the
Shura male representatives of the people of Islam
 Shia Islam: the Caliph should be an Imam (religious
leader) chosen by God from among Muhammad’s
progeny

36. Four Caliphates Succeeded
Muhammad

 Rashidun Caliphate 632-661
 Umayyad Caliphate 661-750
 Abbasid Caliphate 750-1258
 Ottoman Dynasty 1299-1922

37. Rashidun Caliphate

 640: Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia
 642: Egypt
 643: Persia
 Abu Bakir – Oldest companion of Muhammad
 Umar (634)
 Diwan – Government bureaucracy
 Military paid and controlled by Caliph
 Conquered peoples do not have to convert to Islam
 Imposed an Amir (governor) and an Amil (Financial
Officer)
 Customs, language, religion untouched

38. Rashidun Caliphate: 632 - 661

39. Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

 Family from Mecca
 Created capital at Damascus
 Covered more than 5 million square miles at its
greatest extent
 Favored Old Arab Families over converts who were
forced to pay the tax for non-believers

40. Ruins of Umayyad Palace near Constantinople

41. Umayyad Caliphate

42. Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem built in 691 under the Umayyad Caliphate

43. Alleged Foundation Stone Claimed to be
the site of the Holy of Holies by Rabbinic
Sources dating to 833. Some Talmudic
Sources disagree.
The Rock on which Muhammad
Ascended into heaven and was
Accompanied by the Angel Gabriel to
Pray with Abraham, Moses and Jesus.

44. Western Wall (Wailing Wall) and Dome of the Rock

45. Abbasid Caliphate 751-1258

 Moved Capital from Damascus to Baghdad in 762
 Islamic Golden Age 762-1268
 ―The ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a
martyr.‖ Qu’ran hadith
 House of Wisdom in Baghdad—goal to gather all the
wisdom of the known world
 Algebra
 Medicine (contagion)
 Astronomy
 Literature

46. Abbasid Caliphate

47. Emirates After 950

48. Islamic Art

 Islamic Motifs: repeated in seemingly infinite,
rhythmic pattern extension bounded only by the
borders of the frame
 Reflects Allah’s infinite & uncentralized creation
 Meander & Frame: expresses the universal theme of
both variety and unity in nature
 Complex surface designs in mosaics and tiles
 Qur’anic inscriptions

49. Great Mosque, Cordoba, Spain

Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest,
"Mosque", accessed 8 Oct 2012,
http://quest.eb.com/images/144_1
582566

50. West Door, Great
Mosque

Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest,
"Mosque", accessed 8 Oct 2012,
http://quest.eb.com/images/144_
1576283

51. Great Mosque (784-987)


52. Arabesque Style

Photo by Yves Remedios.
Detail Of design in Alhambra
Palace In Granada, Spain

53. Detail of ―Honeycomb‖ Vaulting in the Hall of the Abbencerajes, Photo by Vaughan Williams.

54. Mosques and Churches

 Mosques designed as places of prayer not liturgical worship
 No images in Mosques
 Mosques oriented toward Mecca
 Direction of Mecca is marked by a niche
 Niche may hold a lamp
 Minbar raised platform for reading Qur’an located to right of
the niche
 Church interiors designed to draw worshippers from secular to
sacred
 Sacred images are helpful to establish an atmosphere conducive
to worship
 Ritual of gathering, word, prayer, Holy Communion, sending

55. Layout of Saint Peter’s Basilica


56. Interior of
Saint Paul’s
Outside the Wall

57. Ceiling Fresco: Saint Paul’s Outside the Walls,
Rome


58. Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest, "Mosque & Cathedral", accessed 8 Oct 2012, http://quest.eb.com/images/144_1578986

59. Mosque & Church

Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest, "Mosque / Cathedral", accessed 8 Oct 2012, http://quest.eb.com/images/144_1575704

60. Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest, "Hagia Sophia", accessed 8 Oct 2012, http://quest.eb.com/images/105_1397141

61. Encyclopædia Britannica Image Quest, "Painting Of Christ And Mary In Hagia Sophia", accessed 8 Oct 2012, http://quest.eb.com/images/105_1398607