Nencki 2010 Day1
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My introductory presentation at Nencki Institute 2010.
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Nencki 2010 Day1
- 1. Dariusz Plewczynski, PhD ICM, University of Warsaw D.Plewczynski@icm.edu.pl czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 2. Cognitive Computing From Brain Modelling to Large Scale Machine Learning Dariusz Plewczynski, PhD ICM, University of Warsaw D.Plewczynski@icm.edu.pl czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 3. What is Cognition? czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 4. What is Cognition? 1. Cognoscere latin: "to know" or "to recognize" 2. Cognition is a general term for all forms of knowing (e.g. attending, remembering, reasoning and understanding concepts, facts, propositions, and rules). 3. Cognitive processes refers to the processing of information, applying knowledge, and changing preferences. 4. Cognitive psychology is the study of cognition. 5. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field that extends the principles of cognitive psychology to other systems that manipulate information. 6. Cognitive Informatics studies the natural intelligence and internal information processing mechanisms of the brain, as well as the processes involved in perception and cognition. http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognition czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 5. Cognitive Psychology czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 6. Cognitive Psychology âą focuses on study of higher mental functions with particular emphasis on the ways in which people acquire knowledge and use it to shape and understand their experience in the world. âą examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. âą How people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, the mental processes, which mediate between stimulus and response in the form of algorithmic or heuristics rules. http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 7. Cognitive Science czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 8. Cognitive Science The interdisciplinary study of mind or the study of thought. It embraces multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology, sociology and biology. It relies on varying scientific methodology (e.g. behavioral experimentation, computational simulations, neuro-imaging, statistical analyses), and spans many levels of analysis of the mind (from low- level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning, from neural circuitry to modular brain organization, etc.). http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_science czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 9. Cognitive Computing? czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 10. Cognitive Computing? we know now what is cognition at least more or less ... czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 11. Cognitive Computing? we know now what is cognition at least more or less ... ... but where is the computing ? czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 12. Computing Computing as a discipline, Denning 1989, Computer czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 13. Computing The discipline of computing is the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information: theory, analysis, design, efficiency, implementation, application. Instances of theory may appear at every stage of abstraction and design, instances of modeling at every stage of theory and design, and instances of design at every stage of theory and abstraction. Computing as a discipline, Denning 1989, Computer czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 14. Cognitive Informatics czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 15. Cognitive Informatics An emerging discipline that studies the natural intelligence and internal information processing mechanisms of the brain, as well as the processes involved in perception and cognition. It provides a coherent set of fundamental theories, and contemporary mathematics, which form the foundation for most information- and knowledge-based science and engineering disciplines such as computer science, cognitive science, neuropsychology, systems science, cybernetics, software engineering, and knowledge engineering. http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_informatics czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 16. How the brain works? David Marr (1945-1980) three levels of analysis: the problem (computational level) the strategy (algorithmic level) how itâs actually done by networks of neurons (implementational level) P. Latham P. Dayan czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 17. Simulating the Brain neuron introduced by Heinrich von Waldeyer-Hartz 1891 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 18. Simulating the Brain synapse introduced by Charles Sherrington 1897 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 19. How the brain works? neocortex (cognition) 6 layers ~30 cm ~0.5 cm subcortical structures (emotions, reward, homeostasis, much much more) P. Latham P. Dayan czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 20. How the brain works? Cortex vs CPU numbers: 1 mm^2 1 mm3 of cortex: 1 mm2 of a CPU: 50,000 neurons 1 million transistors 10000 connections/neuron 2 connections/transistor (=> 500 million connections) (=> 2 million connections) 4 km of axons .002 km of wire whole brain (2 kg): whole CPU: 1011 neurons 109 transistors 1015 connections 2*109 connections 8 million km of axons 2 km of wire P. Latham P. Dayan czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 21. How the brain really learns? Time & Learning: You have about 1015 synapses. If it takes 1 bit of information to set a synapse, you need 1015 bits to set all of them. 30 years â 109 seconds. To set 1/10 of your synapses in 30 years, you must absorb 100,000 bits/second. Learning in the brain is almost completely unsupervised! P. Latham P. Dayan czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 22. Neuronal Simulators Software Packages: Neuron http://www.neuron.yale.edu/neuron/ NEST http://www.nest-initiative.org/ Brian http://www.briansimulator.org/ Genesis http://genesis-sim.org/ ... czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 23. /3$&4/ 34.07 9- '-,0*3-7 9+ * (&),0&%&-7 E.*0&$*$&=- )47-0 4% &$( -%%-3$( 4/ (&8/*0( */7 Whole Brain Emulation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andberg, N. Bostrom czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 24. Brain Resolution WBE levels of interest: An informal poll among WBE workshop in 2008 attendees produced a range of estimates where the required resolution for Whole Brain Emulation (WBE) is. The consensus appeared to be level 4â6. Two participants were more optimistic about high level models, while two suggested that elements on level 8â9 may be necessary at least initially (but that the bulk of mature emulation, once the basics were understood, could occur on level 4â5). To achieve emulation on this level, the consensus was that 5Ă5Ă50 nm scanning resolution would be needed. This roadmap will hence focus on level 4â6 models, while being open for that deeper levels may turn out to be needed. A. Sandberg, N. Bostrom czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 25. Something Smaller Mammalian thalamo-cortical System by E. Izhikevich: The simulation of a model that has the size of the human brain: a detailed large-scale thalamocortical model based on experimental measures in several mammalian species. The model exhibits behavioral regimes of normal brain activity that were not explicitly built-in but emerged spontaneously as the result of interactions among anatomical and dynamic processes. It describes spontaneous activity, sensitivity to changes in individual neurons, emergence of waves and rhythms, and functional connectivity on different scales. E. Izhikevich czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 26. and Less Complicated IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NEURAL NETWORKS, VOL. 15, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2004 E. Izhikevich czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 27. Our Goal: Cognitive Networks Cognitive networks CN are inspired by brain structure and performed cognitive functions CN put together single machine learning units connected via an interconnections. The goal is to understand the learning as the spatiotemporal information processing and storing capability of such networks (Meta-Learning!). 1. Space: for every LU (learning unit): a. For every time step: i. Update the state of each LU using changed training data ii. If the LU learning was performed with success, generate an event for each coupling that the LU is post-event coupled to and pre-event coupled to. 2. Time: For every TC (time coupling): When it receives a pre- or post-event, update its state and, if necessary, the state of the post-event LUs czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 28. Uwe Koch & Stephane Spieser Pawel G Sadowski, Tom Dariusz PlewczyĆski Kathryn S Lilley darman@icm.edu.pl Marcin von Grotthuss Krzysztof Ginalski Leszek Rychlewski Adrian Tkacz Jan Komorowski & Marcin Kierczak Lucjan Wyrwicz czwartek, 25 marca 2010
- 29. Brainstorming (static consensus learning) Uwe Koch & Stephane Spieser Pawel G Sadowski, Tom Dariusz PlewczyĆski Kathryn S Lilley darman@icm.edu.pl Marcin von Grotthuss Krzysztof Ginalski Leszek Rychlewski Adrian Tkacz Jan Komorowski & Marcin Kierczak Lucjan Wyrwicz czwartek, 25 marca 2010
Hinweis der Redaktion
- Cognitive psychology focuses on study of higher mental functions with particular emphasis on the ways in which people acquire knowledge and use it to shape and understand their experience in the world. This figures indicates key foci of cognitive psychology.   Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology o f Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithmsârules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristicsârules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships. Â
- Cognitive psychology focuses on study of higher mental functions with particular emphasis on the ways in which people acquire knowledge and use it to shape and understand their experience in the world. This figures indicates key foci of cognitive psychology.   Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology o f Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithmsârules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristicsârules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships. Â
- Despite their inseparability, the three paradigms are distinct from one another because they represent separate areas of competence. Theory is concerned with the ability to describe and prove relationships among objects. Abstraction is concerned with the ability to use those relationships to make predictions that can be compared with the world. Design is concerned with the ability to implement specific instances of those relationships and use them to perform useful actions. Applied mathematicians, computational scientists, and design engineers generally do not have interchangeable skills. Â Moreover, in computing we tend to study computational aids that support people engaged in informationtransforming processes. On the design side, for example, sophisticated VLSI design and simulation systems enable the efficient and correct design of microcircuitry, and programming environments enable the efficient design of software. On the modeling side, supercomputers evaluate mathematical models and make predictions about the world, and networks help disseminate findings from scientific experiments. On the theory side, computers help prove theorems, check the consistency of specifications, check for counterexamples, and demonstrate test cases. Â Computing sits at the crossroads among the central processes of applied mathematics, science, and engineering. The three processes are of equal-and fundamental- importance in the discipline, which is a unique blend of interaction among theory, abstraction, and design. The binding forces are a common interest in experimentation and design as information transformers, a common interest in computational support of the stages of those processes, and a common interest in efficiency. The fundamental question underlying all of computing is, âWhat can be (efficiently) automated?â
- Despite their inseparability, the three paradigms are distinct from one another because they represent separate areas of competence. Theory is concerned with the ability to describe and prove relationships among objects. Abstraction is concerned with the ability to use those relationships to make predictions that can be compared with the world. Design is concerned with the ability to implement specific instances of those relationships and use them to perform useful actions. Applied mathematicians, computational scientists, and design engineers generally do not have interchangeable skills. Â Moreover, in computing we tend to study computational aids that support people engaged in informationtransforming processes. On the design side, for example, sophisticated VLSI design and simulation systems enable the efficient and correct design of microcircuitry, and programming environments enable the efficient design of software. On the modeling side, supercomputers evaluate mathematical models and make predictions about the world, and networks help disseminate findings from scientific experiments. On the theory side, computers help prove theorems, check the consistency of specifications, check for counterexamples, and demonstrate test cases. Â Computing sits at the crossroads among the central processes of applied mathematics, science, and engineering. The three processes are of equal-and fundamental- importance in the discipline, which is a unique blend of interaction among theory, abstraction, and design. The binding forces are a common interest in experimentation and design as information transformers, a common interest in computational support of the stages of those processes, and a common interest in efficiency. The fundamental question underlying all of computing is, âWhat can be (efficiently) automated?â
- Cognitive psychology focuses on study of higher mental functions with particular emphasis on the ways in which people acquire knowledge and use it to shape and understand their experience in the world. This figures indicates key foci of cognitive psychology.   Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology o f Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithmsârules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristicsârules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships. Â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â
- The term âneuronâ was coined by Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz in 1891 to capture the discrete information processing units of the brain.  The junctions between two neurons were termed âsynapsesâ by Sir Charles Sherrington in 1897.  Information flows only along one direction through a synapse, thus we talk about a âpre-synapticâ and a âpost-synapticâ neuron. Neurons, when activated by sufficient input received via synapses, emit âspikesâ that are delivered to those synapses that the neuron is pre-synaptic to.  Neurons can be either âexcitatoryâ or âinhibitory.â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â
- On a historical note, in 1956, a team of IBM researchers simulated 512 neurons ( N. Rochester, J. H. Holland, L. H. Haibt, and W. L. Duda, Tests on a Cell Assembly Theory of the Action of the Brain Using a Large Digital Computer, IRE Transaction of Information Theory, IT-2, pp. 80-93, September 1956. ).  Our results represent a judicious intersection between computer science which defines the region of feasibility in terms of available computing resources today, and neuroscience which defines the region of desirability in terms of biological details that one would like to add. At any given point in time, to get a particular scale of simulation at a particular simulation speed, one must balance between feasibility and desirability. Thus, our results demonstrate that a non-empty intersection between these two regions exists today at rat-scale, at near real-time and at a certain complexity of simulations. This intersection will continue to expand over time. As more biological richness is added, correspondingly more resources will be required to accommodate the model in memory and to maintain reasonable simulation times. The value of the current simulator is in the fact that it permits almost interactive, large-scale simulation, and, hence, allows us to explore a wide space of parameters in trying to uncover (âguessâ) the function of the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, understanding and harnessing dynamics of such large-scale networks is a tremendously exciting frontier. We hope that C2 will become the linear accelerator of cognitive computing. Â
- On a historical note, in 1956, a team of IBM researchers simulated 512 neurons ( N. Rochester, J. H. Holland, L. H. Haibt, and W. L. Duda, Tests on a Cell Assembly Theory of the Action of the Brain Using a Large Digital Computer, IRE Transaction of Information Theory, IT-2, pp. 80-93, September 1956. ).  Our results represent a judicious intersection between computer science which defines the region of feasibility in terms of available computing resources today, and neuroscience which defines the region of desirability in terms of biological details that one would like to add. At any given point in time, to get a particular scale of simulation at a particular simulation speed, one must balance between feasibility and desirability. Thus, our results demonstrate that a non-empty intersection between these two regions exists today at rat-scale, at near real-time and at a certain complexity of simulations. This intersection will continue to expand over time. As more biological richness is added, correspondingly more resources will be required to accommodate the model in memory and to maintain reasonable simulation times. The value of the current simulator is in the fact that it permits almost interactive, large-scale simulation, and, hence, allows us to explore a wide space of parameters in trying to uncover (âguessâ) the function of the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, understanding and harnessing dynamics of such large-scale networks is a tremendously exciting frontier. We hope that C2 will become the linear accelerator of cognitive computing. Â
- On a historical note, in 1956, a team of IBM researchers simulated 512 neurons ( N. Rochester, J. H. Holland, L. H. Haibt, and W. L. Duda, Tests on a Cell Assembly Theory of the Action of the Brain Using a Large Digital Computer, IRE Transaction of Information Theory, IT-2, pp. 80-93, September 1956. ).  Our results represent a judicious intersection between computer science which defines the region of feasibility in terms of available computing resources today, and neuroscience which defines the region of desirability in terms of biological details that one would like to add. At any given point in time, to get a particular scale of simulation at a particular simulation speed, one must balance between feasibility and desirability. Thus, our results demonstrate that a non-empty intersection between these two regions exists today at rat-scale, at near real-time and at a certain complexity of simulations. This intersection will continue to expand over time. As more biological richness is added, correspondingly more resources will be required to accommodate the model in memory and to maintain reasonable simulation times. The value of the current simulator is in the fact that it permits almost interactive, large-scale simulation, and, hence, allows us to explore a wide space of parameters in trying to uncover (âguessâ) the function of the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, understanding and harnessing dynamics of such large-scale networks is a tremendously exciting frontier. We hope that C2 will become the linear accelerator of cognitive computing. Â
- On a historical note, in 1956, a team of IBM researchers simulated 512 neurons ( N. Rochester, J. H. Holland, L. H. Haibt, and W. L. Duda, Tests on a Cell Assembly Theory of the Action of the Brain Using a Large Digital Computer, IRE Transaction of Information Theory, IT-2, pp. 80-93, September 1956. ).  Our results represent a judicious intersection between computer science which defines the region of feasibility in terms of available computing resources today, and neuroscience which defines the region of desirability in terms of biological details that one would like to add. At any given point in time, to get a particular scale of simulation at a particular simulation speed, one must balance between feasibility and desirability. Thus, our results demonstrate that a non-empty intersection between these two regions exists today at rat-scale, at near real-time and at a certain complexity of simulations. This intersection will continue to expand over time. As more biological richness is added, correspondingly more resources will be required to accommodate the model in memory and to maintain reasonable simulation times. The value of the current simulator is in the fact that it permits almost interactive, large-scale simulation, and, hence, allows us to explore a wide space of parameters in trying to uncover (âguessâ) the function of the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, understanding and harnessing dynamics of such large-scale networks is a tremendously exciting frontier. We hope that C2 will become the linear accelerator of cognitive computing. Â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â
- Thus, neurons are simulated in a âclock-drivenâ fashion whereas synapses are simulated in an âevent-drivenâ fashion. Â As a first step toward cognitive computation, an interesting question is whether one can simulate a mammalian-scale cortical model in near real-time on an existing computer system? What are the memory, computation, and communication costs for achieving such a simulation? Memory: To achieve near real-time simulation times, the state of all neurons and synapses must fit in the random access memory of the system. Since synapses far outnumber the neurons, the total available memory divided by the number of bytes per synapse limits the number of synapses that can be modeled. We need to store state for 448 billion synapses and 55 million neurons where later being negligible in comparison to the former. Â Communication: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. Each neuron connects to 8,000 other neurons, and, hence, each neuron would generate 8,000 spikes (âmessagesâ) per second. This amounts to a total of 448 billion messages per second. Computation: Let us assume that, on an average, each neuron fires once a second. In this case, on an average, each synapse would be activated twiceâonce when its pre-synaptic neuron fires and once when its post-synaptic neuron fires. This amounts to 896 billion synaptic updates per second. Let us assume that the state of each neuron is updated every millisecond. This amounts to 55 billion neuronal updates per second. Once again, synapses seem to dominate the computational cost. The key observation is that synapses dominate all the three costs! Let us now take a state-of-the-art supercomputer BlueGene/L with 32,768 processors, 256 megabytes of memory per processor (a total of 8 terabytes), and 1.05 gigabytes per second of in/out communication bandwidth per node. To meet the above three constraints, if one can design data structure and algorithms that require no more than 16 byes of storage per synapse, 175 Flops per synapse per second, and 66 bytes per spike message, then one can hope for a rat-scale, near real-time simulation. Can such a software infrastructure be put together? This is exactly the challenge that our paper addresses. Specifically, we have designed and implemented a massively parallel cortical simulator, C2, designed to run on distributed memory multiprocessors that incorporates several algorithmic enhancements: (a) a computationally efficient way to simulate neurons in a clock-driven ("synchronous") and synapses in an event-driven("asynchronous") fashion; (b) a memory efficient representation to compactly represent the state of the simulation; (c) a communication efficient way to minimize the number of messages sent by aggregating them in several ways and by mapping message exchanges between processors onto judiciously chosen MPI primitives for synchronization. Furthermore, the simulator incorporated (a) carefully selected computationally efficient models of phenomenological spiking neurons from the literature; (b) carefully selected models of spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity for synaptic updates; (c) axonal delays; (d) 80% excitatory neurons and 20% inhibitory neurons; and (e) a certain random graph of neuronal interconnectivity. Â